Journal of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

Methods for the collection, preparation and extraction of tissues of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus drginianus) are given, Electrophoretic technique, buffers, gel preparation and banding patterns for 27 proteins encoded by 28 stnlctura) loci are described. In a survey of 400 deer from the Savannah River Plant, nine loci were shown to be polymorphic. The potential use ofpopulation genetics information for wildlife management programs is discussed.

Burning reduced the dense growth between 3-year-old Japanese honeysuckle plants and prevented the resprouting of runners. Mowing removed the dense accumulation of vines, but the severed runners resprouted to create a uniformly dense carpet. Crude protein of foliage was highest on the burned plots, but neither calcium nor phosphorus were significantly affected by the treatments.

Wild captured adult alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) over a 4 1/2 year period exhibited a nesting rate of 50 percent. Clutch size averaged 39.5 eggs per nest. Fertility rates averaged 75.4 percent. Successful stocking rates ofone male to four females were achieved in a one-half acre enclosure. Pen construction methods and maintenance techniques were implemented to simulate natural marsh conditions, thereby encouraging breeding and contributing to the health of the alligators. Diseases posed no problem during the investigation although fighting and escapes were major concerns during the early phases of the study.

Aerial and gronnd censuses of bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) wintering in Oklahoma indicate a minimum population in midwinter of almost 600 eagles. The northern bald eagle (H. l. alascanus) is the primary subspecies found in Oklahoma. Eagles generally begin arriving in October, their populations peak in January, and most have departed by mid March. The largest concentrations ofeagIes are located along the SaIt Fork River near Salt Plains National Wildlife Rehlge (NWR), at Grand Lake, in Osage and Texas Counties, at the Wichita Mountains NWR and Sequoyah NWR, and at Keystone, Tenkiller, Eufaula, and Fort Gibson Reservoirs. Fourteen communal roosts were found. Cottonwoods (Populus deltoides) are the main roost tree species. Sixty-four percent ofthese roosts are on private property. Fourteen percent of the roosts are threatened by human disturbance and their future is considered precarious.

During a three year study 282 successful nesting pairs of southern bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus) produced 404 young at a rate 0£1.43 young per successful nest, and 0.82 per active territory. This is similar to productivity report by Spruntet al (1973) for a 12 year study of eagles nesting in the Everglades. Production of young per active territory in the South Florida Region (report by Spruntet all973) was 0.73, for this survey it was 0.65. Statewide eagles used pine (Pinus sp) as nesting sites (60.5 percent), over cypress (Taxodium sp) (14.3 percent), and red, white, and black mangrove (Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, and Avicennia genninans) (22.9 percent). During the three seasons studied, eagles nesting in the Central Florida Region produced a total of 221 young (54.7 percent of statewide production) at a rate of1.47 young per successful nest.

Biologists consider four southeastern United States bat taxa to be endangered (in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their range). They are Myotis sodalis (Indiana bat), Myons grisescens (gray bat), Plecotus townsendii virginianus (Virginia big-eared bat), Plecotus townsendii ingens (Ozark big-eared bat). Causes of population declines include loss of habitat, direct killing, and disturbances to hibernating and maternity colonies.

The Delmarva fox squirrel (Sciurus niger cinereus) and the gray squirrel (Sciurns carolinemis) occupied nest boxes placed in four separate woodlots on Maryland's Eastern Shore. During each season, a large proportion (42%-58%) of the boxes were not occupied, indicating that a lack of nesting sites is not limiting the abundance of Delmarva fox squirrels. The status of the Delmarva fox squirrel at all four sites is precarious. Management of the Delmarva fox squirrel must be based on the best available knowledge. Data pertaining to this squirrel are limited because of its scarcity and, until recently, a lack of interest in the animal by management agencies. Information concerning litters, nest box utilization, and habitat relationships is the basis for a discussion of management strategies. These include reduction of under bush by light burning or cattle grazing and selective removal of gray squirrels to reduce interspecific competition

Wintering and breeding-bird populations were determined for even-aged loblolly pine stands 6 years, 20 years, and 46 years old in Livingston Parish, Louisiana. Comparative data were collected in a natural stand. These stands supported bird populations lower in density and species diversity than the natural forest. As vegetative strata increased in a stand, the number and kinds ofbirds present, also increased.

Seven caged black bear (Ursus americanus) were fed granular lithium chloride mixed in honey. At the maximum dosage (SOg dissolved in .91 of honey) and minimum dosage (20gl.91) ingestation resulted in sickness. A single treatment resulted in six of the treated bears being conditioned to refuse to eat pure honey for periods varying from 15 to 220 days. One bear continued to relish pure honey and exhibited no aversion

Approximately 10,500 locations of 234 individually marked white-tailed deer (Odocoileus cirginianus) in an 826-ha enclosure at Radford Anny Ammunition Plant in Dublin, Virginia, were analyzed to determine when and why deer wander and disperse from their home range. For the first 10 months after birth, over 95 percent ofall locations were within O.8km ofeach deer's center ofactivity, but of those which lived past 15 months ofage, 30 percent ofthe does and 53 percent ofthe bucks are known to have wandered beyond 1.6km, considered the limit of normal activity, sometime during their lives. The tendency for long movements by does was greatest during spring and summer, especially following temporary breakup of family groups at 1 year of age, and when does were preparing to bear their first fawn at 2 years of age. Bucks moved much more frequently than does, and 19 bucks made 2.5 changes in range, mostly between the ages of 12 and 21 months.

A systematic search of 5,200 acres on Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge was conducted to assess unreported losses of deer following two 3-day special deer hunts in 1974. Of 1,141 deer harvested from the Refuge, 334 (29 percent) were removed from the study areas. The search revealed that 67 deer (20.0 percent loss) were unretrieved by hunters on these areas, compared to an estimate of 32 percent loss as determined from responses by successful hunters to a post-hunt questionnaire. Inconsistencies between the sex-age composition of harvested deer and those left in the field suggested that some intentional abandonment may have occurred.

The impact of refuges on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus drginianus) movements and population dynamics, although often discussed, has never been clearly documented in the Southeast. This study used radio telemetry, modified Lincoln Index censusing, sex ratio counts, kill data and observations of40 marked deer from March 1973 through November 1974 to analyze movements between Berry College Refuge and contiguous hunted areas in northwestern Georgia. Three major patterns of movement seemed apparent; (1) relatively sedentary movement patterns of resident refuge deer, (2) dispersal of 1.5 and 2.5-year-old bucks from the refuge coincident with the onset ofrut, and (3) migration of a large contingent of deer (mainly does) onto the refuge concident with the opening of hunting season. Bucks dispersing from the refuge sustained considerable mortality from hunting. The concurrent influx of deer onto the refuge, however, nearly doubled the population (P < 0.05).

Past emphasis on wildlife research with immediate applicability has resulted in good management progress with minimum effort. However, this emphasis may now be impeding management progress. Most of the "easy" answers may be known already. Wildlife scientists and managers should recognize the need for basic physiological and nutritional research to improve future management procedures. Examples are given ofrecent knowledge concerning wild species that have been obtained through such basic research, the possible implications ofthis knowledge, and the need for more "in depth" research on the biology and ecology ofthe species with which we work.

A FORTRAN IV model of the inter- and intra-seasonal energy flow through deer populations was developed for evaluating the potential biological productivity ofland for deer. The productivity per unit cost is suggested as a means for evaluating land being considered for acquisition for deer management areas. The model uses the "Standard Deer Unit," an integration of climatic, behavior, and other factors. To characterize the energy dynamics of deer maintenance and production subjective probability estimations are made by the user of successional changes in cover and forage production. Indices of the potential sightable and harvestable deer production are calculated in standard deer units at 5-year intervals over a SO-year planning horizon.

In 1971 a joint Tennessee Valley Authority-Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency effort began to increase wood duck (Aix sponsa) productivity, test nest structure acceptability, and document competition-predator problems on a 12.5-mile segment of the upper Holston River in Hawkins County, Tennessee. Over 90 standard wooden, rocket, and horizontal wood duck nest boxes were installed. Duck use of nest boxes increased from 6 percent in 1971 to 44 percent by 1975. Woodie preferences progressed during this time as follows: wooden boxes, 12 percent to 55 percent use; rocket boxes, 3 percent to 57 percent use; and horizontal structures, 0 to 23 percent. Starlings (Stumus e·ulgaris) were chief competitors. using 40 percent available rocket boxes. 19 percent wooden boxes, and 6 percent horizontal structures in 1975.

Rooted vegetation in lakes of the Atchafalaya River Basin was adversely affected by increasing water turbidities from rising flood waters. Duck food plants decreased 80 percent from October 1972 to October 1973 as a result of severe flooding. Different sections of the basin were affected more than others by high water levels. Pest plants were a problem throughout most of the basin but presented no great problem in the study areas. Lakes in the lower section ofthe swamp region and the marsh region had the highest occurrence of vegetation during the study period. The middle and lower sections of the swamp region and the marsh region had higher duck usage than the upper section. Water turbidities were lowest in the upper section of the swamp region and water depths greatest.

A three-year study was initiated in 1972 to evaluate habitat manipulation practices of ducks in a beaver pond complex located at Hardaway, Macon County, Alabama. Three methods for controlling water level were not eflective. Seed yields were determined for four planted and one naturally occurring plant species. Japanese millet (Echinochloa crusgalli var. frumentacea) averaged 2342 kglha: jungle rice (Echinochloa colunum), 1847 kglha; chiwapa millet (Echinochloa frumentacea), 2064 kg/ha; sunflower (Heliantlllls sp.J, 1625 kg/ha; and red-rooted sedge (Cypenls erythrorhizos), & 34 kglha. During the hunting seasons of 1972-1975, 134 dabbling ducks were collected for food habit analysis. The five most important food items ranked by importance value for the combined period were: Quercus nigra, Ludwigia leptocarpa, Sparganium chlorocarpum, Glycine max, and Polygonum hydrol'iperiodes. The planting of several millet species for ducks was of little value on this study area.

The characteristics, management and costs of 213 diked impoundments in an important waterfowl wintering area in coastal South Carolina were studied in 1972-73 by intensive field surveys and interviews with owners, managers, construction companies, and tax collectors. Managed impoundments composed 22,536 acres of the total 98,451 acres of marshland and were claimed by 52 individuals or private groups and two state agencies. The objectives in management varied, but attracting waterfowl or snipe was an objective for 77 percent of the impoundments composing 87 percent (19,617 acres) of the total acreage of managed wetlands. Waterfowl food production was achieved primarily by manipulating natural vegetation through control of water Ievels and salinities, often in coordination with cattle grazing. Specific techniques of vegetation control are described, and dimensions and descriptions of dikes and water control structures are given.

Species diversity and density for game and non-game birds were studied during winter and summer, 1975 on three streams in the Virginia Piedmont which were channelized 2,5, and 9 years prior to Held work. Three study sites, each 1 hectare in size, were located along streams in secondary succession bottom land hardwood communities. Indices were calculated for bird species diversity (BSD) and foliage height diversity (FHD) using the Shannon-Weaver information theory formula. To further assess any differences in either diversity or density among the three sites the following variables were also examined: the number of breeding birds per hectare, the mean number of birds observed per hour, and the average number of bird species seen per day. Results indicated that BSD and FHD increased from the 2-year-old to 9-year-old channelized streams. A significant increase was observed in avian diversity and density through progressive successional stages of the channelized streams.

From January 1973 to September 1974, a study was conducted at Rockefeller Rehlge, Grand Chenier, Louisiana to determine the effects of irrigating Scirpus olneyi with various concentrations of salt water during drought periods. Scirpus olneyi was established in 12 one-tenth-acre impoundments and subjected to 6 water level and salinity treatments. Drying ponds for 1 and 3 months before the treatments were initiated had no measurable effects on culm density. The 20 ppl salinity treatments reduced culm density, but the 10 ppt salinity treatments and wet and dry controls had little or no effect on plant growth, The 6 experimental treatments had no effect on rhizome growth, Rhizome volume increased throughout the study.

Response in hunter opportunity, use, and success to user-fee wildlife management systems are examined on International Paper Company lands in Arkansas and Texas during 1970-74. During 1972-74, 28,500 published hunting guides to open lands were distributed. One permit per 26.5 acres of management area was sold during 1974. Membership in Texas club leases increased from one member/124 acres to one member/57 acres during 1970-74. Lease members averaged 7.7 days squirrel hunting and 3.0 days deer Use of permits varied between management areas. Success ratios were 0.8 squirrels/day and 0.08 deer/day on leases and 3.0 squirrels/day and 0.04 deer/day on management areas. Hunter attitudes and management implications are discussed.

A tank study was conducted to determine the effects various concentrations of crude oil on brackish marsh plants. Scirpus olneyi and Spartina patens were grown in tanks and subjected to a light and a heavy crude oil at four concentrations and four water levels over an H.5-month period. Growth and survival ofplants were detennined monthly. A fluctuating water level (+5 to -5cm) with so parts per thousand (ppt) of heavy crude oil was the treatment most detrimental to S. olneyi. Crude oil enhanced growth and survival of S. olneyi at a water level of +5cm above the soil surface. Growth increased as oil concentrations increased and was greater for heavy oil than for light oil of equal concentrations. For S. patens treated with crude oils, a fluctuating water level (+5 to -5cm) and a +5cm water level were the most detrimental. High oil concentrations were detrimental to S. patens at water levels of -5cm and 0em. Damage to S. patens was more severe for heavy oil than for light oil.

A telemetric study of the effects of recreational activities on the eastern wild turkey was conducted during the summer of 1972 and the spring and summer of 1973 and 1974. One hundred and three turkeys were captured and patagium tagged. Fifty-five were released with 164 MHz radio transmitters attached. Turkeys did not frequent a heavily used off·road vehicle area. Foot trail traffic had an adverse effect on the use ofan area by turkeys. Turkeys were not known to inhabit any area closer than 1.0km to campgrounds in the summer. Some loss of turkeys to poaching was noted. Management implications are discussed.

Information on seasonal food habits of the European wild hog (Sus serofa) was obtained by analyses of stomach contents of 128 animals collected in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park from 1971 to 1973. Hogs ate primarily plant material in all seasons. Grasses (Gramineae) were the most important food item in the spring and were also important to hogs in the summer, as were the fruits Gaylussacia spp., and Malus spp. Roots were the major food item in the fan and winter months, although the mast of Quercus spp. and Carya spp. was important when available. Animal matter consumed consisted primarily of invertebrates, salamanders and small mammals. Invertebrates were the most frequently occurring animal food. Total volume of animal matter was small. However, the apparent more than random searching for animal matter indicates the possible importance of these higher protein food sources in the diet of hogs.

Muskrats, Ondatra zibethicus, (360) were collected from river and creek study areas in East Tennessee from July, 1972 to June, 1973. Data were recorded on reproductive parameters. Maximum values for testis length and width occurred in August, whereas maxima for testis volume and weight were in May and August, respectively. Evidence indicated that sperm were present in the adult males year-round. Maturation of follicles began in January in adult females; mature follicles were present in late February and March, and the first corpora lutea of pregnancy were found in April. Maximum values for mean ovarian weights for pregnant and non-pregnant river adults were achieved in July. Ovarian lengths were maximum in April (non-pregnant) and August (pregnant). Average litter size was 5.38 and the average number oflitters per year per female was 2.3. Fetal implantations were found until August, and follicular activity ceased by October.