Journal of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

Primary foods of American black ducks (Anas rubripes) and mallards (A. platyrhynchos) wintering at Tennessee National Wildlife Refuge were compared by examining esophageal and proventricular contents of ducks collected during winter, 1990-91 and 1991-92. Seeds of natural plants comprised the primary component of the diet of both species. Nodding smartweed {Polygonum lapathifolium), wild millet (Echinochloa crusgalli), lovegrass (Eragrostis hypnoides), and rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides) were the most common seeds consumed by both species. Water smartweed (P. hydropiperoides) also was consumed abundantly by black ducks. Black duck samples contained more (P < 0.021) stem and leaf material than mallard samples during both winters and less (P < 0.002) agricultural grain during 1991-92. No differences were detected in food consumption between females and males of either species.

Food habits of wintering ring-necked ducks (Aythya collaris) were determined by examining gullets from 597 birds collected in 3 regions of Florida. Fifty-five of the gullets contained trace amounts of food and 148 contained >1 ml. Forty-one foods were identified. Animal matter, principally snails, chironomids, and dragonflies, occurred in 43.6% of the samples containing food. Plant foods, principally hydrilla {Hydrilla verticillata), waterlilies (Nuphar advena, Nymphaea odorata, Brasenia scherberi), and sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense), occurred in 89.1 % of the samples containing food. Food habits were significantly different among regions and between the sexes in November and March. The major foods were: waterlily seeds in the north region, waterlily seeds and hydrilla parts in the north-central region, and hydrilla and sawgrass in the south region. Overall, hydrilla and waterlilies were the most important foods.

We monitored reproductive effort and success of a wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) population on a public wildlife management area in Mississippi for 9 years using telemetry and other indices. Adult hens (N = 143) had a nesting rate of 72.7% (range 54-100) and was greater (P = 0.0001) than the nesting rate (26.7%) of juvenile hens (N = 15). Annual nest success of 104 nests of adult hens averaged 30.8% (range 0-62) and poult survival to >50 days was 22.7% for 27 broods (N = 203 poults). Clutch size averaged 9.1 (SE = 0.54) and 6.7 (SE = 1.1), and hatchability was 93% and 100%, for first and second clutches, respectively. During this period, turkey population estimates and indices (gobbler harvest, hen ancillary observations) declined 250%-350%. Low reproduction was due primarily to high predation of nests and poults and appeared to have caused the population decline.

From 1986 to 1988, we studied the demography and habitat use of an eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) population subjected to humaninduced flooding along the Roanoke River, North Carolina. A six-month flood from 22 December 1986 to 22 June 1987 resulted in significant shifts in habitat use. Female home ranges during flooding were significantly larger than those recorded during non-flood periods. During non-flood periods, females used bottomland hardwoods more than other available habitats. Habitat use during flooding reflected availability instead of overall resource preference with females moving from bottomland hardwood to upland hardwood hillside to alluvial first ridge habitats as availability changed. Flooding inundated 79% of all nesting habitats used in nonflood periods. No reproduction occurred among radio-transmittered hens during 1987. Hen:poult ratios were 0.5, 6.6, and 0.2 in 1986, 1987, and 1988, respectively.

A total of 1,576 wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) droppings (650 male and 926 female) was collected from 1 January-31 December 1989 on Westvaco's Oswald Unit located in Jasper County, South Carolina. This Unit is made up of loblolly pine plantations (77%), natural pine stands (10%), hardwood stands (5%), and open, nonforested areas (8%). Fecal analysis was used to determine food habitats. Forty-six food stuffs were identified, and there were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in food items by sex. Panicum sp., Ilex glabra, Myrica cerifera, Paspalum sp., Rubus sp., Vaccinium sp., Cyperus sp., and insects made up the bulk of food items throughout the year. The annual diet consisted of 92% plant matter and 8% animal matter.

Wildlife managers on public hunting areas are accountable for hunter success rates, annual harvest, and wildlife population size. Understanding the effect of changes in numbers of wild turkey gobblers (Meleagris gallopavo) on harvest characteristics is needed. Population size and harvest characteristics were studied for 9 years on a 14,140-ha public hunting area in central Mississippi. Male wild turkey population size averaged 82, hunter effort averaged 455 hunter-days per season, and an average of 35 male turkeys was harvested per season. Hunter success rates averaged 7.7%, 2.1%, and 5.6% for all males, subadults (jakes), and adults (gobblers), respectively. For male turkeys released in the winter capture period (7 Jan-4 Mar) and subsequently harvested that spring (15 Mar-1 May), harvest rates averaged 22.1%, 15.0%, and 35.4% for all males, jakes, and gobblers, respectively, from 1984 to 1992. Hunter effort was not correlated with male harvests (P = 0.198).

Eleven of 66 radio-collared white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in southwest Florida were killed by bobcats (Felis rufus) and 4 by Florida panthers {Felis concolor coryi). Average doe home range size was 194 ha, and 2 bucks ranged from 454-1,560 ha. There were no differences (P = 0.336) in doe survival rates among seasons. The average annual survival rate for does was 0.813 (95% CI- 0.68, 0.94) and 64% of the annual mortality was attributable to predation. Average neonate mortality rate was 37.8% ±16.1 and appeared to increase with surface water levels. Human hunting activities had little impact on the number of radio-collared does, and the population was stable with a net reproductive rate (Ro) of 0.96.

Supplemental forage plantings for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been aimed primarily at the winter stress period with little or no consideration to supplementing the summer diet. Consequently, there is little information concerning the efficacy of summer plantings. A total of 14 summer cultivated forages was evaluated using 4 criteria: 1) productivity, 2) availability during stress periods, 3) utilization and acceptance by deer, and 4) nutritional quality. Warm-season forages performing best were alyceclover, iron and clay cowpea, catjang cowpea, American jointvetch, and centennial soybean. Bottomland sites were more productive than upland sites. Combination plantings, particularly comprised of alyceclover and cowpea in the upland and alyceclover, cowpea, and jointvetch in the bottomland, are recommended over single variety plantings.

We collected whole blood and serum samples from 50 harvested (unstressed) and 37 live-caught (handling stress in drop-net) adult white-tailed (Odocoileus virginianus) does to evaluate the influence of capture method on clinical blood parameters commonly used to assess nutritional condition of deer. Our study found mean values for HCT, MCV, WBC, lymphocytes, neutrophils, creatinine, cholesterol, total protein, albumin, globulin, Na, LDH, and GGTP to be significantly higher in live-caught than harvested does. The concentrations of serum inorganic P and K were lower for livecaught than harvested does. Although the majority of clinical blood parameters were influenced by capture method, their patterns of temporal change (seasonal and annual) were not different, thereby indicating that either method would provide similar conclusions regarding changes in nutritional condition over time.

A safe and effective muscle biopsy procedure that can be used to sample genetic variation in live white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is described. The validity of this procedure for estimating genetic variability was confirmed by sampling blood and muscle from 78 road-killed and 57 captured deer at Chickamauga Battlefield National Military Park, Georgia, between June 1991 and June 1992. Six polymorphic loci were detected in muscle tissue and 2 polymorphic loci were found in blood using starch-gel electrophoresis. We compared levels of genetic variation in 3 sampling groups: road-killed deer, "actively" captured deer, and "passively" captured deer. Deer were considered "active" captures if the capture method did not involve baiting at the capture site (i.e., drive-nets, poaching, scientific collections, remote darting).

During the summer and fall of 1991 and 1992, 48 (21 M:27 F) white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawns were captured and radiocollared (N = 43) on Remington Farms near Chestertown, Maryland. Survival of radio-collared fawns, from 1 week old until the fall hunting season, was 91%. Collared fawn mortality (N = 9) was due to abandonment, tick infestation, infection, and roadkill. Visual locations (N = 1,229) were collected to determine adult accompaniment rates for radio-collared fawns. The likelihood of a fawn being with or without an adult was independent of sex of the fawn (P > 0.10). Hunting data from 1981-92 indicate that the number of male and female fawns killed (N = 287) was not significantly different overall (P > 0.10). However, buck fawns were more likely than doe fawns to be killed in the first half of the 1-week shotgun season (P < 0.05, N = 265).

Land taken out of cultivation in the Blackland Prairie soils of Alabama and Mississippi frequently reverts to a plant community dominated by Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), with co-dominants of marsh elder (Iva annua), verbena (Verbena brasiliensis), and Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis). These plant species are of little value as a food source for the northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and eliminate many desirable quail food plants. Renovation of a Johnsongrass community was attempted by mowing during the fall and overseeding with hairy vetch (Vicia villosa). Seeds of this species are known to be utilized by quail during both spring and fall months. Data collected from line transects showed a 62% mean coverage of vetch at the end of the first growing season and a 92% mean coverage of vetch after the second growing season, with a corresponding decrease in coverage of Johnsongrass plant community species.

The effect of disking fallowed agricultural fields was studied in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain of South Carolina. Six combinations of disking frequency and time-of-year and a control were tested. Although plant communities responded by returning to an earlier serai stage, well-established perennials prevented a complete return to Stage 1 succession. The effect of disking frequency proved more influential than that of time-of-year. Treatments were evaluated for their ability to produce food plants for northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). In the Piedmont, food values were found to have increased 1 year after all treatments, while control plots showed no increase. Annual March treatment extended the increase into the second year. In the Coastal Plain, no significant differences in food values were found between sampling periods regardless of treatment. Vegetation density was controlled by annual disking; density in biennially disked and control plots increased.

We determined the distribution of swamp rabbits (Sylvilagus aquaticus) and bottomland hardwood forests, potential swamp rabbit habitat, in Missouri during the 1991-92 winter. Presence of swamp rabbits was determined from information gathered from resource managers and by searching habitat for fecal pellets. Most potential swamp rabbit habitat in Missouri is located in the southeast, and we documented 45,218 ha of bottomland hardwood forest there by measuring tracts identified on aerial photos. The forest was highly fragmented in southeastern Missouri, especially on private land where 75% (N = 3,228) of the identified tracts contained <5 ha. We surveyed 274 tracts of potential habitat in southeastern Missouri and found 114 with a combined area of 23,529 ha that contained evidence of swamp rabbits.

We monitored radio-tagged northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) from January through July of 1990 and 1991 to determine if preferential habitat use occurred within the covey home range. We generated estimates of percent bare ground, average height of herbaceous vegetation, percent canopy cover of herbaceous vegetation and honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), proportion of the herbaceous canopy represented by grasses, herbaceous quail foods, and woody vegetation <2 m tall at used and unused sites within 12 covey home ranges. We pooled the data within each home range and used 2 approaches to evaluate the extent to which these 7 variables influenced habitat use. First, we compared means from used and unused sites for each of the 7 parameters with a Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Additionally, we regressed means from used sites on estimates from unused sites. The 2 approaches used to evaluate habitat selection yielded different results.

We studied changes in ground-level vegetation (shrubs, herbs, vines, trees) in a deciduous forest before (1984) and after (1987) the initial stages of a gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) invasion. Seventeen of 18 plant species known to be important wildlife food plants increased in percent cover from 1984 to 1987. Total percent ground cover and plant species richness also increased. At the same time, the number of snags and snag basal area increased but not significantly, implying that the gypsy moth can be used as a management tool to enhance understory vegetation without harvesting trees. By 1988, however, tree mortality had significantly increased. A variety of options, therefore, exists for wildlife managers faced with a gypsy moth invasion, including no action, halting the outbreak with pesticides, or silvicultural treatment prior to invasion. Advantages and disadvantages of each depend on management objectives and budgetary and environmental constraints.

Black bear (Ursus americanus) mortality data were collected in eastern North Carolina from 1976 to 1992. These data included registered harvest totals from mandatory hunter-harvest records, field reports, and tooth samples from bears dying of all causes (N = 1,107 for harvest; N = 350 for vehicle-kill). Increasing trends in harvest corresponded to establishment of seasons in 11 counties beginning in 1986. Vehicle-kills increased until 1990 but declined during 1991-92. Combined age structures did not differ significantly from the 1976-1985 period (before new seasons established) to the 1986-91 period (after new seasons established). Harvest age structures differed significantly from age structures of vehicle-kill. Bears <4 years old composed 56.2% of the harvest and 70.0% of vehicle-kills during the entire study period. Subadult males (1- and 2-year old classes) composed the largest portion of both harvest (28.8%) and vehicle-kill (32.3%).

Tail meat samples from 22 American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) collected from 10 collection areas in Georgia during 1990 were analyzed for mercury (Hg) concentrations (wet weight basis). Mercury was detected in all samples and ranged from 0.1 ppm to 1.4 ppm (x = 0.48 ppm). No differences in mercury concentration were found between sexes (P = 0.638) or among all collection areas (P = 0.178). Pooled samples from collection sites on the headwaters of the Suwannee River system had higher mercury concentrations (P < 0.005) than those from all other collection sites combined. There was no correlation (P > 0.20) between alligator total length and mercury concentration in the meat samples. Because the mean mercury concentration in alligator meat in this study was below the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) "action level" for fish flesh and because alligator meat is consumed infrequently, no public health problem was indicated.

We analyzed blood lead concentrations and prevalences of ingested lead and steel shot in 93 ring-necked ducks (Aythya collaris) at Catahoula Lake, Louisiana. Blood lead concentrations were higher for immatures than for adults, but did not differ between sexes or between randomly collected and hunter-shot birds. Blood lead concentrations were elevated (≥ 0.20 ppm) in 18 of 31 immatures (58%) and 13 of 61 adults (21%), and were toxic (≥ 0.50 ppm) in 11 immatures (35%) and 5 adults (8%). Prevalences of ingested lead shot were higher for immatures (7 of 32 birds, 22%) than for adults (3 of 61 birds, 5%), but did not differ between sexes or collection methods. Prevalences of ingested steel shot did not differ between sexes, but were higher for hunter shot (10 of 39 birds, 26%) than for randomly collected birds (2 of 54 birds, 4%), and tended to be higher for immatures (8 of 32 birds, 25%) than for adults (4 of 61 birds, 7%).

Movements, primary use areas, activity periods, and habitat use were evaluated for beaver (Castor canadensis) from 2 adjacent colonies, a stream colony, and a lake colony in the Piedmont of South Carolina. Beaver were monitored from February 1983 through March 1984. Minimum total distance moved by individual beaver ranged from 0.26 to 6.83 km. Distance between extreme locations ranged from 0.08 to 1.86 km. Lake colony beaver movements exceeded those of stream colony beaver. Beaver were more active during fall and winter months. Areas frequented by beaver ranged from 10.95 ha to 14.67 ha. For each colony habitat, types were not used in proportion to availability and habitat use varied between colonies.

In Florida, virtually every wetland and upland habitat type is threatened by the effects of development. Large-scale developments which fall under the Developments of Regional Impact Program are reviewed by multiple agencies, including the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. To provide review personnel with accurate life history information and biologically sound habitat protection recommendations, the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission began publishing habitat protection guidelines for those listed species which had frequently been an issue during large-scale development reviews. Recommendations in the publications reflect development-related actions considered necessary to perpetuate these species outside existing protected lands. Synopses from two of the publications are provided.

The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission's Nongame Wildlife Program developed a ranking system to identify and prioritize those taxa within the state most in need of research and conservation efforts in order to focus limited staff and financial resources where they are most needed and can be most effective. Wading birds were identified as a priority group of taxa in need of conservation attention. An innovative plan was developed for addressing the conservation needs of that group. Components of the plan include a statewide nesting colonial wading bird survey, colony selection for inclusion in the project, colony site surveys, prioritization of selected colonies, development of site-specific conservation plans, development of general protection and management guidelines, establishment of a volunteer network to conduct management and monitoring activities, and evaluation.

North Carolina's colony-nesting waterbirds probably existed for thousands of years along nearly 500 km of coastal estuaries and barrier islands. Suffering from the effects of over-harvest by plume hunters and extensive loss of habitat due to coastal development, these birds began to receive notice during the 1970s. Studies of coastal community succession began in 1970 and quickly determined that dredged material islands provide essential habitat for colony-nesting waterbirds. In 1976, coastwide censuses were initiated to survey the 20-22 species suspected to nest in the state. Surveys in 1976, 1977, and 1983 brought to light a need for cooperative management for these species. In 1988, a Cooperative Agreement to conserve these species and their habitats was adopted by 11 state, federal, and private agencies. For the past 4 years, the cooperating agencies have successfully continued this coastwide conservation effort.

Aerial overflights were used to assess impacts of the application of habitat management guidelines to 24 experimental and 38 control bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) nesting territories. No significant differences in productivity were found between nests where management guidelines had been applied and control nests where no development had occurred. No changes in the minimums called for in the guidelines or their application are indicated at this time.

In 1988 the Georgia Department of Natural Resources contracted the Survey Research Center of the University of Georgia to conduct a telephone survey of public attitudes toward nongame wildlife. Phone numbers of potential respondents were selected using random digit dialing, a method that allowed all telephone households (97% of all Georgia households) an equal chance of being selected. Respondents were asked a series of 17 questions of which 12 pertained to interest in and support of nongame wildlife and 5 related to demographics. A total of 541 individuals were surveyed. Over 81% of the respondents expressed at least some interest in nongame wildlife. These and other data were used to assist administrators charting the direction of Georgia's nongame wildlife conservation efforts.