Journal of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

Biotelemetry studies of 13 striped bass (Morone saxatilis) x white bass (M. chrysops) hybrids in the Escambia River, Florida demonstrated positive affinity of the hybrids for saline waters. Average salinity at relocation sites ranged from 0.5 to 4.1 ppt at the surface and from 3.6 to 21.8 ppt on the bottom. Movements of hybrids in the river system appear to be strongly influenced by seasonal fluctuations in river discharge. Hybrids usually inhabited the lower, tidal delta of the river during periods of low and normal discharge and moved into the bay during times of high flow. No evidence of significant upstream emigration was observed. Two hybrids emigrated from the Escambia River estuary into adjacent river systems. Maximum movement recorded was 88 km.

Fingerling Morone hybrids were stocked into Lake Apopka, Florida, in an attempt to create a sportfishery in the hypereutrophic lake. The lake was stocked with 635,000 original hybrids (8 fish/ha) in May, 1980 and 315,000 original hybrids (4 fish/ha) in May, 1981. Growth during their first year (age 0) was not rapid for either year class, however, by 23 months the mean total length of the 1980 year class was comparable to that of other hybrids in Florida and the southeast. Analysis of stomach contents indicated extensive use of shad (Dorosoma spp.), although grass shrimp (Palaemonidae) comprised a large part of the stomach contents of hybrids 292 mm total length and smaller. Enthusiastically accepted by anglers, a successful but localized put-grow-and-take sportfishery was created.

The effects of sunlight intensity on survival of Morone saxatilis X Morone chrysops hybrid fry were examined through studies performed in replicated aquaria and hatchery rearing ponds. The aquaria and ponds were exposed to direct sunlight and 2 types of sunlight reduction (overhead shading and decreased water clarity). Direct sunlight reduced fry survival in the aquaria and pond experiments. In aquaria, variations in overhead shade and water clarity significantly affected fry survival, and decreased water clarity was more effective than an increase in overhead shade in increasing survival. In ponds, overhead shading was more effective than water clarity in increasing fry-to-fingerling survival.

The scale method and length-frequency analysis were not adequate for accurately aging and measuring growth rate of black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) collected in Florida. Black crappie otoliths (sagittae) showed clearly recognizable: bands in whole view, suggesting possible use of otoliths to age black crappie. Otoliths satisfied necessary criteria for validating aging structures: growth was proportional to black crappie growth, annuli formed in the spring, and back-calculated lengths agreed with lengths for age-classes estimated from length-frequency analysis. We consider otoliths useful for accurately aging black crappie in Florida.

A food habit study was conducted for the redbreast sunfish (Lepomis auritus) and the longear sunfish (Lepomis megalotis) occurring in small streams of the Coastal Plains and Piedmont Plateau physiographic provinces near Auburn, Alabama. Fish stomach analyses revealed that redbreast and longear are primarily insectivores. The bulk of the diet of both species in small streams was composed of aquatic and terrestrial insects. Crustaceans were also consumed by both species regularly. Ingestion of a wide variety of other organisms suggests opportunistic feeding in both species. Based on 24-hour sampling results, both species had the greatest food item diversity during daylight hours and the least after dark. Redbreast was the more active feeder. Significant overlap in food habits between the 2 species was evident using the Schoener Index to food overlap.

A total of 791 young-of-year white bass (Morone chrysops) from 2 East Tennessee reservoirs were examined to determine food habits and growth. An effort was made to determine when they switched from an insectivorous to a piscivorous diet. White bass in Cherokee Reservoir consumed primarily insects (Chironomidae) during their first year and in Norris Reservoir, primarily zooplankton (Cladocera). When they began consuming fish, young-of-year white bass in Cherokee Reservoir were between 2.5 and 5.0 cm in length while white bass in Norris Reservoir were between 5.0 and 7.5 cm. Numbers of fish consumed by white bass were analyzed as a percentage of numbers of all foods consumed, and as a percentage of foods occurring in the guts of all fish in the study. White bass grew larger (18.4 cm) in Norris than in Cherokee (14.0 cm) during their first year, although mean ,condition factors were similar in both reservoirs (Norris 0.67 to 1.1, Cherokee 0.86 to 1.21).

Diel occurrence and feeding of alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus) in shoreline areas of Claytor Lake, Virginia was investigated concurrent with food habits of resident juvenile bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) , pumpkinseed (L. gibbosus), and yeHow perch (Perca flavescens); and the composition and abundance of the littoral zooplankton community. Schools of alewives entered coves at sunset and fed intensively through the night, departing soon after sunrise. Alewives and juvenile fish consumed the same 16 items, but to different degrees. Alewives fed primarily on zooplankton in the water column, whereas the juvenile fish ate mostly epibenthic forms with which they were associated In the aquatic macrophyte/brush habitat. Alewife stomachs contained 9 to 30 times the volume and number of items as did those of juvenile fish. The hIgh foraging efficiency of alewives in large schools may result in trophic competition with littoral zooplanktivores despite partial resource partitioning.

Releases of large volumes of water from low-level release ports during generation of peaking hydropower at Hartwell Dam, Georgia-South Carolina, resulted in large daily flow fluctuations and altered water quality in a section of the Savannah River. Flows ranged from a minimum of 3 m3/sec during nongeneration to 665 m3/sec during generation. Thermal stratification in Hartwell Reservoir generally resulted in low water temperatures (≤20 C) throughout the 14-km study area and low dissolved oxygen concentrations <3 mg/I) in the 2-km section of the river immediately below the dam. Distribution of fish species was similar at all sampling locations, but abundance generally increased downstream. Major factors affecting fish abundance below Hartwell Dam appeared to be recruitment of fish from the reservoir, a reduction in habitat diversity just below the dam, water temperatures suitable for sunfish spawning, and stocking of rainbow and brown trout (Salmo gairdneri and S. trutta).

Tests were performed to determine the acute toxicity of simazine, a herbicide commonly used in pond aquaculture, to the cIadoceran Daphnia pulex and to 3- and 7-day old larval striped bass (Morone saxatilis). The 48-hour LC50 for 3-day-old striped bass was r8 mglIiter in hard water (220 mg/liter as CaC03 ) and r6 mglIiter in soft water (120 mglIiter as CaC03 ); corresponding estimates for 7-day-old larvae exceeded roo mg/liter. The estimated 48-hour LC50 for D. pulex exceeded 50 mg/liter in both hard and soft water. These estimates were considerably higher than recommended pond application rates of simazine, but abnormal behavioral responses of both test organisms to sublethal concentrations suggested that long-term exposure could be harmful. Inasmuch as 7-day-old larvae were far less sensitive than 3-day-old larvae, the timing of simazine applications in relation to age of fish could have pronounced effects on survival of striped bass in ponds.

The effects of supplemental feeding on the winter growth of male bluegill (Lepomis machrochirus) x female green sunfish (L. cyanellus) F1 hybrids were investigated in northeast Mississippi. Four 0.04 ha ponds were each stocked at the rate of 2471 fish per ha. Fish in 2 ponds were fed daily while the other fish subsisted only on natural food. Mter 90 days at water temperatures below 15 C, fed fish were significantly (P <0.05) heavier. but not longer than non-fed fish. Coefficients of Condition (K) for fed fish showed a significant (P < 0.05) increase through the winter and were significantly higher than K for non-fed fish, which showed no significant change in K through the winter.

Fingerling channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) fed a 25% crude protein practical feed grew as well as or better than fingerlings fed a 35% crude protein practical feed in both Mississippi and Arkansas ponds during 2 consecutive winters. Fingerlings in Texas grew better on the 35% protein feed, although poor survival may have affected the results. The 35% protein feed provided no growth advantage to adult fish in Mississippi. Both feeds had equivalent energy to essential amino acid ratios and both contained 12% fish meal. There were minimal differences in feed conversion ratios and survival of fish fed the 2 feeds in Mississippi and Arkansas.

Tilapia aurea fingerlings were fed semipurified diets differing only in the degree of saturation in the lipid component (soybean oil). Growth improved significantly as degree of unsaturation in dietary lipid increased. All fish became depleted in high (> 18 carbon atom) molecular weight polyunsaturated fatty acids during the course of the study. This may indicate that desaturation and elongation of such dietary fatty acids as linoleic and linolenic acid either did not occur or was so slow that such fatty acids as 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 were metabolized before appearing in the depot lipids of the fish.

Two populations of channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) with different histories of domestication-Marion (Alabama) and Kansas-were grown in earthen ponds at 7,500/ha. The largest 10% of each population were selected when population mean weights were 500 g. The reproductive performance of these selects was compared to that of brood from random control populations. Data were analyzed for each strain then pooled and re-analyzed. No differences were found in spawning day, spawning rate, hatchability of eggs and survival of sac fry. Fecundity (eggs deposited) was increased (P < 0.05) in the pooled select brood fish. Fingerling output was also higher for selects (P < 0.05) in the Marion and pooled populations, but lower (P < 0.05) in the Kansas select population. Fecundity, sac fry survival, and fry survival had the largest effects on fingerling output.

Blue catfish (lctalurus furcatus) , channel catfish (I. punctatus) , white catfish (I. catus) , and their hybrids channel x blue, blue x channel, channel x white, and white x blue were produced and grown to an average total length of 150 mm and weight of 30 g in earthen ponds. Blue catfish (P < 0.0 I) and white catfish (P < 0.02) were more uniform in length than channel catfish. The channel x blue hybrid was more uniform in length than its reciprocal blue x channel hybrid and channel catfish (P <0.02). Uniformity of channel x white and white x blue hybrids was not different from that of channel catfish (P > 0.05). Paternal predominance for length uniformity found in reciprocal channel-blue hybrids was not found in hybrids involving white catfish. Skewness in length distribution were zero or slightly negative, indicating catfish fingerling populations were normally distributed. More competitive environments increased skewness (P < 0.05).

A finely-pulverized agricultural limestone was much more effective than a coarse agricultural limestone in elevating the total alkalinity of ponds and of laboratory mud-water systems. The relative abilities of different particle-size classes of agricultural limestone to raise total alkalinity were determined. A method for correcting pond lime requirements for the neutralizing value and fineness of agricultural limestone was proposed.

Mark-recapture techniques were used to estimate the abundance of harvestable size paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) in Norris Reservoir, Tennessee, during spring 1980. Results indicated a harvestable population of 8,772 fish with a 95% confidence interval of 4,557 to 18,467. A comparative study using gill nets of various bar mesh sizes showed that gill nets with 17.8-cm bar mesh or larger were more efficient for collecting harvestable paddlefish while having less adverse impact on sport fish species than did nets with smaller mesh sizes.

A survey was made of incidental catch in the Louisiana gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) purse seine fishery. Samples were taken in 1980 and 198 I at plants located at Empire, Dulac, and Cameron. Overall the bycatch comprised 2.68% by number and 2.35% by weight of the catches sampled. The most abundant species were Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus), seatrout (Cynoscion spp.), threadfin shad (Dorosoma petenense) , Atlantic bumper (Chloroscombrus chrysurus), hardhead catfish (Arius felis), and spot (Leiostomus xanthurus). Differences in species composition and abundance of bycatch among plants were found. The effects of the gulf menhaden fishery on other fisheries was considered insignificant.

A creel census was conducted on Albemarle Sound and its tributaries from February 1, 1977 through January 31, 1980 to estimate the total annual sport fishing pressure and harvest of major sport fish species, particularly striped bass (Morone saxatilis). Total sport fishing effort was in excess of 400,000 party-hours per year, and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), was the species for which the greatest amount of specific effort was exerted. The harvest of striped bass and most other species declined drastically during the study. The relative harvests of the sport and commercial fisheries operating on the Albemarle Sound-Roanoke River striped bass population are compared and possible causes of the decline in harvest are discussed.

The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department mailed 2 different survey questionnaires to 5,000 randomly selected households to estimate the number of residents fishing and the ways they fished in Texas from 1 September 1978 through 31 August 1979. The questionnaires in this survey were identical except one sub-group (1000) asked household members questions regarding their possession of a valid fishing license. Differences in responses to these 2 questionnaires were used to assess response biases. Estimates of total license sales (a known statistic) from survey data showed a strong positive bias (license sales were overestimated by 62% ). The mean number of fishermen per household was significantly greater (P < 0.05) in the group which was not asked about the possession of fishing licenses. Return rates and responses to questions regarding all other fishing activities were identical for the different survey questionnaires.

Roving creel surveys were conducted on 2 Southeastern reservoirs from March 1980 to February 1981. Two creel clerks performed the field work. Evaluation of creel clerk performance descriptors (number of missing questionnaire entries and interview length) documented a clerk break-in period. Variation in fishing effort affected clerk data gathering efficiency (percent of fishermen sampled). Clerks differed in administering a modified Likert response format on 12 of 17 attitudinal questions posed to fishermen. Clerks did not differ in their sampling of fishermen types or total number of fish observed at each reservoir. These data indicate that effective structuring of creel surveys must address interview methodology as well as traditional design considerations.

Blue Tilapia (Tilapia aurea) were introduced to Florida in 1961. Subsequently they have become established throughout the central part of the state. Tilapia were first collected from Lake Tohopekaliga in 1976. Since that time a considerable expansion in both numbers and biomass has been documented. The juvenile tilapia population has increased by a rate of approximately 500% per year from 1979 to 1981. Blocknet samples taken in the fall of 1981 indicated that young of the year and adults of this species conservatively comprised 0.5% by number and 16% by weight of littoral zone fish populations. Experimental gill nets of 127-, 152- and 178-mm stretch mesh have proven effective in sampling limnetic tilapia populations.

Low water levels, sustained high temperatures, and potential increases in predatory pressure appear to have adversely affected the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) population of Lake Elmdale, Arkansas. An estimated population of 3,916 bass were present in 1981 compared to previous estimates of 11,770 in 1977 and 8,937 in 1979. Size overlap between 2- and 3-year-old bass is indicative of differential states of sexual maturity and associated reproductive activity during the harsh drought conditions.

Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) encroachment in Lake Parker and Lake Hunter was directly proportional to production of invertebrates, forage fish species and juvenile largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Survival of young of the year largemouth bass was positively correlated with the presence of hydrilla. Improvements in the sportfish standing crop on both lakes indicated a reversal from hypereutrophic to a mesotrophicl eutrophic fishery. Water quality data revealed a possible trend of stabilization andlor improvement of nutrient levels with hydrilla encroachment.

Giant bulrush (Scirpus californicus) proved to be an excellent aquatic plant for transplanting into lakes. Bulrush has a desirable growth pattern and acts as a natural congregating area for freshwater sportfish. Growth densities allow good angler utilization. Consistent survival and rapid growth response after transplanting was documented in all study lakes.

The relationship between the decline of macroinvertebrate standing crop and the loss of aquatic habitat due to box-cut access channel construction was assessed on Lake Tohopekaliga. Channelization of natural lake bottom had an adverse effect on benthic productivity by increasing both taxon richness and numbers of organisms routinely utilized by sportfish. For this study, channel substrate supported only 54% of the total standing crop of fish food organisms found in littoral substrate. Macroinvertebrates associated with vegetation were eliminated by the destruction of rooted macrophytes; approximately 420 fish food organisms were lost for every cubic meter of vegetated water column altered by channelization. It was estimated that an average standing crop of 840,000 fish food organisms would be lost due to the construction of a "standard" 200 X 10 X 2 m box-cut access channel.

Fish species diversity and abundance were examined over a 3 year period at 6 study sites within a single watershed in the Piedmont of South Carolina. The fish community was dominated by 3 cyprinid species, but included 22 species. Average Shannon-Weaver fish species diversity estimates ranged from 0.15 to 1.87, and were related to substrate diversity. Fish species diversity increased downstream, and decreased in relation to silt in the substrate and frequency of drying. Fish abundance increased downstream and with depth, but was also influenced by substrate characteristics known to influence distribution of aquatic insects.

Florida coastal waters contain more permitted artificial fishing reef sites (ca. 150) than any other state. Initiative stems primarily from local interests, including over 60 different private and public organizations. Florida's earliest reef was authorized in 1936 although 87% were proposed after 1962. Prevalent reef materials include some combination of concrete rubble, tires, automobiles and/ or vessels in 40% of Florida reefs, followed by vessels (25%), and automobile bodies and tires (13% each). Statewide resource agencies and educational organizations have fostered local reef building through financial assistance with construction, streamlined permitting procedures, information transfer via advisory services for siting and publications, and coordination of research, which has yet to address the economic impact of recreational reef fisheries.

The relationship between fish size and the activity of certain liver enzymes was assessed in age I rainbow trout (Salrna gairdneri) from 3 Virginia streams. Total length and body weight of the trout differed significantly among streams. Activity of glutamate dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransferase also differed significantly among fish in the streams and both were negatively correlated with fish size. Differences in size and enzyme activity probably relate to differential caloric intake of fish in the 3 streams. Condition factor and alanine aminotransferase activity of the trout did not differ among streams.

Adult Florida (Micropterus salmoides floridanus) and northern (M. s. salmoides) largemouth bass were subjected in the laboratory to low water temperature regimes similar to those occurring on Texas hatcheries. Northern largemouth bass survived all temperature regimes experienced. Florida largemouth bass suffered mortality that increased as temperature decline rate (1, 2, and 4 C/ day) increased. They survived prolonged exposure (30 days) at 4 C well, but total mortality occurred at 3 and 2 C. Northern largemouth bass were more tolerant than Florida largemouth bass of rapid temperature decreases and low temperatures.

Agonistic behavior and social dominance relationships between similar-sized, wild, adult brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were examined in a laboratory stream. Frequency of movements, aggressive encounters, and consumption of food items by trout when held as single specimens, intraspecific pairs, and interspecific pairs were compared. Rainbow trout were more mobile, aggressive, and successful foragers on drifting prey than brook trout; however, neither species appeared to possess a competitive advantage in establishing social dominance or displacing interspecific rivals. Brook trout were dominant in 9 of 14 interspecific matches. Female trout were dominant in 6 of 10 opposite-sex matches. Dominant trout, regardless of species or sex, exhibited significantly greater mobility, aggressiveness, and feeding success than subordinate trout.

Twenty largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) , 10 containing dummy radio transmitters and 10 control, were studied in hatchery ponds to determine the effects of implanted transmitters on swimming, feeding, spawning and catchability behavior. Eight additional bass were subjected to buoyancy compensation tests under laboratory conditions. Pond studies indicated no significant difference in swimming movement or catchability between transmitter and control bass. Both transmitter and control bass were observed feeding and spawning. All transmitters were encapsulated in a skin-like sac within the body cavity at study termination. Laboratory experiments indicated the negative buoyancy of the transmitters affected bass temporarily, and fin beats increased only during the time it took bass to adjust to the effect of the transmitter.

The spawning period and caloric density of body tissues during gonadal recrudescence were studied in a naturalized population of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) from September 1979 to August 1980. As judged by gonosomatic indices and the percentage of spent females in semimonthly samples, the fish spawned from mid-February to early April, when water temperature and stream flow were both increasing. Decreases in calorific equivalents (cal mg-1 dry weight) of selected tissues during gonadal maturation in fall and winter were greatest in fat reserves along the alimentary tract.

Liberty Lake was stocked with fingerling largemouth bass (Mieropterus salmoides) at 448/ha in July, 1980. Monthly electrofishing samples collected for 1 year following stocking showed 76.4% of the 1980-year-class to have been stocked. A bimodal length distribution of stocked fish appeared in fall, 1980 and continued throughout the sampling period. Decreased survival of the stocked largemouth bass during the winter was noted. Most mortality occurred in the slower-growing fish. However, a decline in the number of fish from both length modes was evident.

Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were fed 38% protein experimental diets which contained either sunflower or soybean meal. Fish were reared in 2 sets of tanks under controlled and ambient water temperatures during January-April 1982. With controlled water temperature, fish fed the sunflower meal diet had a significantly higher final weight, average gains and food conversion ratio. Under ambient water temperature conditions, trout fed sunflower meal diet also had significantly higher final weight and average gain than trout fed soybean meal diets. A 35% protein sunflower meal adequately replaced a 49% protein soybean meal as a protein source in rainbow trout diets.

The fish fauna of Brumley Creek, Virginia, a third-order cold water stream in southwest Virginia, was sampled by electrofishing at 9 sites from headwaters to mouth. A total of 19 species were collected. Upstream sites had few species because of previous management activities. Downstream sites varied in species richness and composition as a function of several watershed characteristics. The differences in species composition among samples illustrates the problem that can occur if the fish fauna is described based on limited sampling, especially if the watershed is small and the management history is complex.

Black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) growth was reduced when hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) coverage exceeded 50% in Lake Baldwin, Florida, between 1977 and 1979. Black crappie did not reach harvestable size (>228 mm TL) until age 3 and 4 during periods of extensive hydrilla coverage and reduced threadfin shad (Dorosoma petenense) abundance. Following hydrilla removal and shad population reestablishment, harvestable size was obtained by age 2 and growth of older fish increased.

Shrimp (Penaeus sp.) at 50 stations throughout Alabama's estuarine area are sampled utilizing 4.9-m otter trawls, a 15.2-m bag seine and 1.8-m beam plankton trawls to monitor abundance and growth. A monthly index is determined for postlarval and juvenile shrimp by species and used each year to estimate relative abundance. A model has been developed to predict the opening day of shrimping season as much as 6 weeks in advance using estimates of brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) growth. Daily mean numbers of shrimp per pound collected in samples are plotted against time for growth rate estimates.

Seasonal diets of cattle and lead deer (Odocoileus virginianus) using three subunits of a rotationally burned longleaf pine-bluestem (Pinus palustrisAndropogon spp.) pasture receiving moderate yearlong grazing are compared with lead deer diets from 3 similarly managed, ungrazed subunits. Considering all plant species, diet overlap averaged 44.3, 34.7, 21.5, and 8.0% during winter, spring, fall, and summer, respectively. Summer diets were largely complementary. On the average, deer selected 15.5% more browse on ungrazed sites during winter, but 7.3 and 7.8% more browse on grazed sites during spring and summer, respectively. Prescribed burning reduced diet overlap during spring.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) forage was greatly increased in 2 loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations after they were control burned and commercially thinned at age 13 years. Forage averaged 26 kg/ha in August 1979 (age 12) before treatment and 326 kg/ha in August 1980 (age 13),1 growing season after treatment, and 429 kg/ha in August 1981 (age 14). Deer forage averaged 31 kg/ha in February 1981 and 52 kg/ha in February 1982, which exceeded the 4.5 kg/ha average in 12-year-old untreated plantations. A 46% decline of deer forage in 1 plantation and a 26% decline in the other plantation in May 1982 compared to May 1981 indicated that the peak in deer forage occurred in the second year after treatment. Most deer forage was forbs and vines with a small woody (browse) component.

Abomasal parasite counts (APC) were determined on 467 whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) collected in summer and 436 deer collected in fall from 50 localities in the Southeast. APC values declined from summer to fall region-wide. Declines in APC values began on most areas in Mountain and Piedmont provinces by October and November, respectively; and in the Coastal Plain province declines in APC values began in November. These differences in the timing of declines in APC values precluded establishment of region-wide guidelines for interpretation of fall APC values. Since APC values did not decline until November in Coastal Plain and Piedmont provinces, the sampling period for APC studies can be extended into October in these provinces. Abomasal parasite counts performed in October or later in the Mountain province and in November or later in Piedmont and Coastal Plain provinces are lower than summer APC values and shoUld be interpreted with caution.

The relationship between abomasal parasitism and physical condition was studied in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Southeast. On both an individual animal and herd basis, the level of abomasal parasitism was inversely related to physical condition. Differences (P ≤ 0.05) in physical condition were noted among herds in each of 3 abomasal parasite count (APC) categories (namely, <500, 500-1,500, >1,500). The relationship between abomasal parasitism and herd physical condition was not cause and effect; rather, both parameters were reflective of the status of deer density relative to habitat carrying capacity. Present data verify that APC values are indicative of overall herd health. Instances in which APC data can be of particular value in deer management are discussed.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) activity levels were estimated by track counts on 3 study sites in the Cross Timbers region of Oklahoma during 1978-79. An activity index (number of tracks/ day) was developed from repetitive readings of 100 track plots (1 X 3 m) per site. Significant differences (P < 0.05) in monthly activity levels were found. Within-month and between-month variability was influenced by land-use patterns, ambient temperature shifts, changes in food resource availability, and deer behavior patterns. A seasonal bimodal pattern was observed, with peaks during late spring and falI-early winter, while lowered activity was observed during early spring and summer.

Percent body fat was estimated from the Kidney Fat Index for 1,726 male, white-tailed deer from the Savannah River Plant in South Carolina for the years 1974 through 1978. There was a significant decrease in percent body fat from September through December in all animals ≥2.5 years. Percent fat in fawns increased significantly from September through December. Fat levels in 1.5-year-old animals did not show a general trend for either an increase or decrease from September through December. However, the lowest percent fats were consistently observed in November for all but the 0.5-year-old males: Percent body fat was significantly related to body weight, month of collection, and age of the male, but the multiple coefficient of determination was small for this relationship (R2 =0.09). The rapid change in fat levels in males during the breeding season indicates that caution must be exercised when using the kidney fat index as a management tool.

Femurs, mandibles, and kidneys with attached perirenal fat were collected from white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in controlled and field studies to examine the use of fat indices for assessing nutritional status. Eleven fawns were fed formulated rations differing in energy content for 4 weeks. The kidney fat index (KFI) was significantly lower for fawns fed low energy (LE) diets compared to high energy (HE) diets. Femur marrow (FMF) and mandibular marrow fat (MMF) levels were unaffected by diet. In another experiment, 9 fawns were fed diets differing in energy and protein content for 13 weeks. In this experiment, all fat indices were lower in fawns on LE diets than on HE diets. Protein intake had no effect on the fat indices. Samples also were collected from 98 captive and wild deer to examine correlations among the fat indices. A significant correlation (r = 0.44) was observed between FMF and MMF.

Winter foods of the river otter (Lutra canadensis) in southern Louisiana were determined to gain an understanding of prey eaten by otters. Otters were taken by trappers in the salt marsh in southeastern Louisiana and freshwater swamp in the Atchafalaya Basin in southcentral Louisiana. Fishes were found in 83.3% of the digestive tracts from salt marsh and 83.0% of the tracts from the swamp area. Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) occurred in 19.8% of the digestive tracts from salt marsh and 3.8% of the tracts from the swamp area. Crayfishes (Procambarus sp.) were found in 34.% of the swamp area digestive tracts and 1.6% of the tracts from the salt marsh. Remains of mammals were found in 7.9% of the digestive tracts from salt marsh and 7.5% of the tracts from the swamp. Other foods of otters from salt marsh and their frequencies of occurrence were birds (2.4%), mollusks (1.6%) and shrimp (1.6%).

Lithium chloride aversive conditioning to reduce raccoon (Procyon lotor) predation of loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) nests was tested under laboratory and field conditions. A total dosage of 1.0 g was determined to produce side effects (diarrhee and emesis) soon after ingestion, and the negative taste reaction to the drug was eliminated when a dosage level of 0.25 g/egg was administered. In separate phases of laboratory testing on 37 raccoons, an aversive conditioned response was observed in only a few individuals. During field testing, there was no significant difference (t = 1.11; P> .05) between the depredation rate on turtle nests before and after a 3-week period of LiCI treatment. Despite the administration of the drug at an undetectable dosage level with resultant physiological side effects, an effective psychological association of food with illness was not made by raccoons.

Food habits analyses were conducted on 264 diving ducks (7 species) from North and South Carolina during the 1970's. The Baltic clam (Macoma balthica) was the predominant food among canvasbacks (Aythya valisineria) from the Pamlico River area, whereas sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) predominated in birds from impoundments in North and South Carolina. Shoalgrass (Halodule beaudettei) formed 100% of the gullet food and 99% of the gizzard food in redheads (Aythya americana) from Pamlico Sound. Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) in North Carolina had fed predominantly on mollusks (Mulinia lateralis and Rangia cuneata), whereas widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima) was the predominant food in birds from South Carolina. In North Carolina, ring-necked ducks (Aythya collaris) fed mainly on vegetation, and greater scaup (Aythya marila), bufflehead (Bucephala albeola), and ruddy ducks (Oxyura jamaicensis) fed mainly on Mulinia lateralis.

Estimates of ducks harvested by hunters from 1965 to 1975, as calculated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, were compared to corresponding estimates calculated by 33 State wildlife agencies. States were grouped into 4 categories according to survey methodology and the relative magnitude of Federal estimates to State estimates was calculated for each category and contrasts performed through analysis of variance on log transformed data. As a group, States where wildlife agencies made pre-season hunter contact produced harvest estimates that were not significantly different from Federal figures. State estimates calculated by the Southeastern Cooperative Fish and Game Statistics Project were significantly higher than Federal estimates, as were estimates from the remaining 2 groups of States where agencies did not make pre-season contact but either sampled or did not sample junior hunters.

Common moorhens (Gallinula chloropus), double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus), and mottled ducks (Anas julvigula) were collected from phosphate-mine settling ponds and natural wetlands in north and central Florida between June and October 1981. Contents of esophagi, proventriculi, and stomachs were removed from 185 birds, identified, and measured by volumetric displacement. Aggregate percentages of food items in diets were compared between settling ponds and natural wetlands. Rank order of items in moorhen diets differed among the 2 habitats. Plant foods comprised at least 80% of moorhen diets on both habitats. Cormorants primarily consumed the same species of fish on settling ponds and natural areas. However, high numbers of mosquito fish (Gambusia afjinis) and small invertebrates were consumed on the settling ponds but not on the natural wetlands.

The food habits of common moorhens (Gallinula chloropus) and purple gallinules (Porphyrula martinica) on a north-central Florida lake were studied through monthly analysis of gizzard contents from May 1981 through April 1982. Common moorhens consumed an average volume of 93% plant and 7% animal food, whereas purple gallinules consumed an average volume of 71% plant and 29% animal food. The major foods of the common moorhen were leaves and stems of Hydrilla verticillata, seeds of Polygonum spp., and snails, Planorbella spp. The major foods of purple gallinules were seeds of Nuphar luteum and Polygonum spp. and insects of the family Chrysomelidae.