Journal of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

We studied seasonal movements of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in northeast Georgia in relation to agricultural food plots during years of varying oak (Quercus spp.) mast production. In total, 2,381 radio telemetry locations were collected from 12 does from 1987 through 1989. Fall and winter home ranges were larger (P < 0.1) during a high oak mast productivity year compared to a low productivity year. There were no differences (P > 0.1) in spring home range sizes under 3 different oak mast conditions. All radio-collared does had ranges which included 1 or more food plots. Most deer were located within 800 m of a food plot during all years and all seasons.

We evaluated standing crop, nutritional quality, and use of 3 legumes planted to provide forage during summer, which is a nutritional stress period for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in southern Texas. Average standing crop of lablab (Lablab purpureus) from 861 to 2,250 kg/ha exceeded (P ≤ 0.05) that of soybeans (Glycine max) and cowpeas (Vigna sinsensis). Phosphorus (P) of lablab and cowpeas exceeded (P ≤ 0.05) soybeans. Lablab crude protein was not different from cowpeas and soybean crude protein, but soybean was greater (P ≤ 0.05) than cowpea in 1990. In 1991, lablab and cowpea leaf crude protein was greater (P ≤ 0.05) than soybean during August and October. Percent use of cowpeas and soybeans exceeded (P ≤ 0.05) percent use of lablab in 1990. In 1991, lablab percent use was similar to that of cowpeas and soybeans during July-September and greater (P ≤ 0.05) than cowpeas in November.

Radio-collared white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; 7 males, 13 females) were tracked from 1984 to 1989 on the Marion County Wildlife Management Area in southern Mississippi. Alternating halves of the study area were planted with 66 0.1-ha and 20 0.4-ha cool-season and 20 0.4-ha summer agronomic forage plots. Mean annual production and utilization (air-dry) of cool-season forages were 1,904 kg/ha (SE = 59) and 1,107 kg/ha (SE = 41), respectively. Summer forage production and utilization were 664 kg/ha (SE = 50) and 586 kg/ha (SE = 48), respectively. Annual 95% convex polygon home ranges averaged 691 ha for 6 adult (≥ 3 years) bucks and 343 ha for 12 adult does. Significant (P < 0.05) seasonal differences in home range size were observed for does, but seasonal differences for bucks were not significant (P = 0.12). Significant movements both toward and away from the planted side of the study area were observed for some individual deer.

We compared production, utilization, and protein levels of 3 ladino clovers (Trifolium repens) in northeastern Georgia. Three 0.2-ha clover plots were planted side by side in 2 separate fields on Chestatee Wildlife Management Area. Samples were clipped, weighed, and analyzed monthly for a 26-month period beginning in April 1990. All clovers were utilized very heavily by deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and other wildlife averaging 392 kg/ha per month dry weight totalling 10,210 kg/ha for the study. With data for both fields combined, there was no significant difference (P > 0.05) in wildlife (predominantly deer) usage among the 3 varieties: Regal (428 kg/ha/month), Imperial Whitetail Mix (383 kg/ha/month), or Osceola (367 kg/ha/ month). Overall use of all varieties was higher in a field (P < 0.01) with no other food plots were nearby.

Sixteen adult bobcats (11 females, 5 males) (Felis rufus) were monitored using radio-telemetry from 1 January 1989-31 December 1992 in Mississippi to determine habitat components influencing core use area (CUA) location and size. Male bobcat CUA size (x = 26.5 km2, SE = 6.1) was larger (P = 0.047) than females (x = 11.8 km2, SE = 2.8). Habitat components of bobcat CUA's did not differ (P > 0.10) by sex. There was a higher (P < 0.01) proportion of pine plantations and agricultural habitats in CUA's than in random areas. There was a lower (P = 0.06) proportion of hardwood stands in CUA's (x = 0.23: SE = 0.03) than in random areas (x = 0.36, SE = 0.04). Occurrence of creeks, roads, and pine stands were not significantly different (P > 0.10) between CUA's and random areas. We propose prey abundance influenced location of bobcat CUA's and thus home ranges on our study area.

Scent stations, passive hair-snaggers and howl surveys were evaluated as possible survey methods for monitoring relative abundance of coyotes (Canis latrans) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) prior to the reintroduction of red wolves (Canis rufus) from January 1990 to April 1991. Scent station nights (N = 198), passive hair-snaggers (N = 70), and howl surveys (N = 197) produced 1 (0.5%), 0 (0.0%), and 35 (17.8%) coyote responses, respectively. Scent stations and hair-snaggers proved ineffective for monitoring coyotes at current population levels. Howl surveys elicited responses from approximately 21 coyotes at 12 locations indicating the feasibility of designing and implementing a standardized survey to monitor the relative abundance of coyotes over time or from area to area. Twenty-seven responses were elicited from coyotes in the Cades Cove section of GSMNP for a coyote index of 22.9% and 8 responses from coyotes outside Cades Cove for a coyote index of 10.1%.

Nine bobcats (Felis rufus) trapped from the Coastal Plain of Georgia in fall 1989 were fed weighed amounts of cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus), hispid cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus), eastern grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinesis), domestic rabbits, a juvenile feral hog (Sus scrofa), and adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to develop correction factors to convert mass of prey remains in scats to an estimate of mass of prey consumed for different prey types. Dry matter digestibility increased with increasing prey size except for white-tailed deer. For prey under 4.5 kg, we developed a regression equation (r1 = 0.75, P < 0.0001) to estimate correction factors for different sizes of prey. With this information, percent biomass consumed of different prey species in bobcat diets can be estimated from remains in bobcat scats.

We examined 8 years of data concerning female bobcat (Felis rufus) reproductive characteristics and kitten growth parameters. Estrus in adults occurred in February and March, peaking in February, while yearlings cycled later (Mar to Jul). Two litters/female/year was the maximum observed, although 3 estrous cycles were observed within a single breeding season. Recycling occurred 12-14 days following kitten loss. Gestation length averaged 64 days, with parturition occurring between April and May. Litter size ranged from 1-5 kittens (x = 2.3), with a sex ratio of 1.24 M : 1 F. Mean birth mass of kittens was 150.27 g and the mean daily mass increment was 6.1 % to 34.4%. Patterns of tooth eruption and morphological characteristics relative to age are summarized.

Spatial relationships of radio-monitored gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) were examined over a 5-year period. Marginal overlap (<10%) of convex polygon home ranges of same sex adult foxes with adjacent home range boundaries provided evidence for territoriality. Extensive overlap was observed between juveniles and adults of opposite sex. Mean home range overlap of suspected mated pairs was 61% ± 13%, providing evidence of pair bonding between the sexes. Territory size (home range) may provide a useful measure of population density. Assuming 2 adult foxes inhabit the same range, adult gray fox population density in areas of suitable habitat in the lower Gulf Coastal Plain can be expected to range from 1 adult fox per 183-308 ha.

We determined the density and characteristics of natural cavities suitable for wood duck (Aix sponsa) nest sites in an old-growth longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forest in Thomas County, Georgia, in 1991 and 1992. Of 17 suitable cavities found on the 72-ha study area, 6 had been recently occupied by nesting wood ducks. Although this density (0.24 per ha) was low compared to northern hardwood forests, it was similar to the densities reported in Mississippi bottomland hardwoods and greater than the density reported for bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica) stands in the southeastern United States. The extensive distribution of this forest type before logging in the early part of this century suggests that longleaf pine forests could have once been an important source of wood duck nest sites.

Recruitment in prairie duck populations is correlated with annual wetland conditions, but a similar relationship has not been demonstrated for wood ducks (Aix sponsa). Therefore, we studied the influence of variable water levels on wood duck recruitment at Sloughs Wildlife Management Area in western Kentucky during 1988 and 1989. In 1989, when water levels were higher (P < 0.0001), nest initiation was earlier, the nesting season lasted approximately 3 weeks longer, and mean brood sizes were greater (P < 0.05). Results suggest high water levels should be maintained during years of drought.

To better understand habitat features on rivers that are important to wood ducks (Aix sponsa), I measured brood density for sections of 12 rivers (329 km) in Tennessee nightlighting during spring 1990 and 1991. Sixteen habitat variables were evaluated for each river and the relationship to brood density was tested. Brood density ranged from 0 to 1.8/km (x = 0.7 on unchannelized rivers). No broods were found on 61 km of channelized rivers. Brood density was positively correlated to aquatic vegetation, mud flats, logs and limbs in the water, large overhanging trees, rapids, and islands and was negatively correlated to exposed mud banks and small trees. River channelization and certain agricultural practices degraded riparian habitat and had a negative effect on brood density. Where habitat for wood duck broods is to be maintained or improved, streams should be protected from channelization and from land management practices which remove tree cover and destabilize riverbanks.

Primary foods of American black ducks (Anas rubripes) and mallards (A. platyrhynchos) wintering at Tennessee National Wildlife Refuge were compared by examining esophageal and proventricular contents of ducks collected during winter, 1990-91 and 1991-92. Seeds of natural plants comprised the primary component of the diet of both species. Nodding smartweed {Polygonum lapathifolium), wild millet (Echinochloa crusgalli), lovegrass (Eragrostis hypnoides), and rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides) were the most common seeds consumed by both species. Water smartweed (P. hydropiperoides) also was consumed abundantly by black ducks. Black duck samples contained more (P < 0.021) stem and leaf material than mallard samples during both winters and less (P < 0.002) agricultural grain during 1991-92. No differences were detected in food consumption between females and males of either species.

Food habits of wintering ring-necked ducks (Aythya collaris) were determined by examining gullets from 597 birds collected in 3 regions of Florida. Fifty-five of the gullets contained trace amounts of food and 148 contained >1 ml. Forty-one foods were identified. Animal matter, principally snails, chironomids, and dragonflies, occurred in 43.6% of the samples containing food. Plant foods, principally hydrilla {Hydrilla verticillata), waterlilies (Nuphar advena, Nymphaea odorata, Brasenia scherberi), and sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense), occurred in 89.1 % of the samples containing food. Food habits were significantly different among regions and between the sexes in November and March. The major foods were: waterlily seeds in the north region, waterlily seeds and hydrilla parts in the north-central region, and hydrilla and sawgrass in the south region. Overall, hydrilla and waterlilies were the most important foods.

We monitored reproductive effort and success of a wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) population on a public wildlife management area in Mississippi for 9 years using telemetry and other indices. Adult hens (N = 143) had a nesting rate of 72.7% (range 54-100) and was greater (P = 0.0001) than the nesting rate (26.7%) of juvenile hens (N = 15). Annual nest success of 104 nests of adult hens averaged 30.8% (range 0-62) and poult survival to >50 days was 22.7% for 27 broods (N = 203 poults). Clutch size averaged 9.1 (SE = 0.54) and 6.7 (SE = 1.1), and hatchability was 93% and 100%, for first and second clutches, respectively. During this period, turkey population estimates and indices (gobbler harvest, hen ancillary observations) declined 250%-350%. Low reproduction was due primarily to high predation of nests and poults and appeared to have caused the population decline.

From 1986 to 1988, we studied the demography and habitat use of an eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) population subjected to humaninduced flooding along the Roanoke River, North Carolina. A six-month flood from 22 December 1986 to 22 June 1987 resulted in significant shifts in habitat use. Female home ranges during flooding were significantly larger than those recorded during non-flood periods. During non-flood periods, females used bottomland hardwoods more than other available habitats. Habitat use during flooding reflected availability instead of overall resource preference with females moving from bottomland hardwood to upland hardwood hillside to alluvial first ridge habitats as availability changed. Flooding inundated 79% of all nesting habitats used in nonflood periods. No reproduction occurred among radio-transmittered hens during 1987. Hen:poult ratios were 0.5, 6.6, and 0.2 in 1986, 1987, and 1988, respectively.

A total of 1,576 wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) droppings (650 male and 926 female) was collected from 1 January-31 December 1989 on Westvaco's Oswald Unit located in Jasper County, South Carolina. This Unit is made up of loblolly pine plantations (77%), natural pine stands (10%), hardwood stands (5%), and open, nonforested areas (8%). Fecal analysis was used to determine food habitats. Forty-six food stuffs were identified, and there were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in food items by sex. Panicum sp., Ilex glabra, Myrica cerifera, Paspalum sp., Rubus sp., Vaccinium sp., Cyperus sp., and insects made up the bulk of food items throughout the year. The annual diet consisted of 92% plant matter and 8% animal matter.

Wildlife managers on public hunting areas are accountable for hunter success rates, annual harvest, and wildlife population size. Understanding the effect of changes in numbers of wild turkey gobblers (Meleagris gallopavo) on harvest characteristics is needed. Population size and harvest characteristics were studied for 9 years on a 14,140-ha public hunting area in central Mississippi. Male wild turkey population size averaged 82, hunter effort averaged 455 hunter-days per season, and an average of 35 male turkeys was harvested per season. Hunter success rates averaged 7.7%, 2.1%, and 5.6% for all males, subadults (jakes), and adults (gobblers), respectively. For male turkeys released in the winter capture period (7 Jan-4 Mar) and subsequently harvested that spring (15 Mar-1 May), harvest rates averaged 22.1%, 15.0%, and 35.4% for all males, jakes, and gobblers, respectively, from 1984 to 1992. Hunter effort was not correlated with male harvests (P = 0.198).

Eleven of 66 radio-collared white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in southwest Florida were killed by bobcats (Felis rufus) and 4 by Florida panthers {Felis concolor coryi). Average doe home range size was 194 ha, and 2 bucks ranged from 454-1,560 ha. There were no differences (P = 0.336) in doe survival rates among seasons. The average annual survival rate for does was 0.813 (95% CI- 0.68, 0.94) and 64% of the annual mortality was attributable to predation. Average neonate mortality rate was 37.8% ±16.1 and appeared to increase with surface water levels. Human hunting activities had little impact on the number of radio-collared does, and the population was stable with a net reproductive rate (Ro) of 0.96.

Supplemental forage plantings for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been aimed primarily at the winter stress period with little or no consideration to supplementing the summer diet. Consequently, there is little information concerning the efficacy of summer plantings. A total of 14 summer cultivated forages was evaluated using 4 criteria: 1) productivity, 2) availability during stress periods, 3) utilization and acceptance by deer, and 4) nutritional quality. Warm-season forages performing best were alyceclover, iron and clay cowpea, catjang cowpea, American jointvetch, and centennial soybean. Bottomland sites were more productive than upland sites. Combination plantings, particularly comprised of alyceclover and cowpea in the upland and alyceclover, cowpea, and jointvetch in the bottomland, are recommended over single variety plantings.

We collected whole blood and serum samples from 50 harvested (unstressed) and 37 live-caught (handling stress in drop-net) adult white-tailed (Odocoileus virginianus) does to evaluate the influence of capture method on clinical blood parameters commonly used to assess nutritional condition of deer. Our study found mean values for HCT, MCV, WBC, lymphocytes, neutrophils, creatinine, cholesterol, total protein, albumin, globulin, Na, LDH, and GGTP to be significantly higher in live-caught than harvested does. The concentrations of serum inorganic P and K were lower for livecaught than harvested does. Although the majority of clinical blood parameters were influenced by capture method, their patterns of temporal change (seasonal and annual) were not different, thereby indicating that either method would provide similar conclusions regarding changes in nutritional condition over time.

A safe and effective muscle biopsy procedure that can be used to sample genetic variation in live white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is described. The validity of this procedure for estimating genetic variability was confirmed by sampling blood and muscle from 78 road-killed and 57 captured deer at Chickamauga Battlefield National Military Park, Georgia, between June 1991 and June 1992. Six polymorphic loci were detected in muscle tissue and 2 polymorphic loci were found in blood using starch-gel electrophoresis. We compared levels of genetic variation in 3 sampling groups: road-killed deer, "actively" captured deer, and "passively" captured deer. Deer were considered "active" captures if the capture method did not involve baiting at the capture site (i.e., drive-nets, poaching, scientific collections, remote darting).

During the summer and fall of 1991 and 1992, 48 (21 M:27 F) white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawns were captured and radiocollared (N = 43) on Remington Farms near Chestertown, Maryland. Survival of radio-collared fawns, from 1 week old until the fall hunting season, was 91%. Collared fawn mortality (N = 9) was due to abandonment, tick infestation, infection, and roadkill. Visual locations (N = 1,229) were collected to determine adult accompaniment rates for radio-collared fawns. The likelihood of a fawn being with or without an adult was independent of sex of the fawn (P > 0.10). Hunting data from 1981-92 indicate that the number of male and female fawns killed (N = 287) was not significantly different overall (P > 0.10). However, buck fawns were more likely than doe fawns to be killed in the first half of the 1-week shotgun season (P < 0.05, N = 265).

Land taken out of cultivation in the Blackland Prairie soils of Alabama and Mississippi frequently reverts to a plant community dominated by Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), with co-dominants of marsh elder (Iva annua), verbena (Verbena brasiliensis), and Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoensis). These plant species are of little value as a food source for the northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and eliminate many desirable quail food plants. Renovation of a Johnsongrass community was attempted by mowing during the fall and overseeding with hairy vetch (Vicia villosa). Seeds of this species are known to be utilized by quail during both spring and fall months. Data collected from line transects showed a 62% mean coverage of vetch at the end of the first growing season and a 92% mean coverage of vetch after the second growing season, with a corresponding decrease in coverage of Johnsongrass plant community species.

The effect of disking fallowed agricultural fields was studied in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain of South Carolina. Six combinations of disking frequency and time-of-year and a control were tested. Although plant communities responded by returning to an earlier serai stage, well-established perennials prevented a complete return to Stage 1 succession. The effect of disking frequency proved more influential than that of time-of-year. Treatments were evaluated for their ability to produce food plants for northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). In the Piedmont, food values were found to have increased 1 year after all treatments, while control plots showed no increase. Annual March treatment extended the increase into the second year. In the Coastal Plain, no significant differences in food values were found between sampling periods regardless of treatment. Vegetation density was controlled by annual disking; density in biennially disked and control plots increased.