Journal of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are arguably one of the greatest wildlife management challenges facing natural resource professionals and landowners in the U.S., and lethal removal by trapping is often the most cost- and time-effective means for managing populations. Whereas numerous studies have examined the effects of trap type, trap activation designs, and baits on trapping effectiveness, no studies utilizing a conditioning period and accounting for unique individuals/sounders and wild pig social structure have examined the effects of trap door width on wild pig entrance into corral-style traps. Modifying trap door width may impact wild pig entrance rates into corral-style traps with wider doors better facilitating entrance. Our objective was to examine wild pig entry times into standard three-panel corral traps with wooden guillotine trap doors of either 0.8-m or 1.2-m widths.

The gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) is a species of concern in the southeastern United States, and its distribution is within the range of the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). One conservation strategy within the state of Alabama has been translocation of adult tortoises to other areas with longleaf pine and sandy soils, including areas outside the current accepted species’ range. Prior examples of such tortoise translocations occurred in two counties in central Alabama: one in the 1960s in Macon County and another in the 1980s in Autauga County. Both introductions occurred near the Coastal Plain fall-line, which is deemed the northernmost landmark designation that tortoises were historically presumed to reside. The status of these translocated tortoise populations had not been recently assessed. Therefore, we surveyed the two locations, captured individuals, and qualitatively examined the minimum known number of alive adult tortoises.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service allows acoustical surveys and automated identification software to determine the presence of the endangered northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) and Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis). Analytical software is required to assess presence probability on a site-night basis using a maximum likelihood estimator (MLE) that accounts for interspecific bat misclassification rates. The current standard for occupancy is a returned MLE P-value < 0.05 at the nightly level irrespective of the number of files identified as either northern long-eared bats or Indiana bats. These MLE P-values can vary based on presence of other bat species with similar calls and the relative proportions of all species recorded. Accordingly, there is concern that with few nightly northern long-eared bat or Indiana bat recordings or the presence of large numbers of high-frequency bats, false-negative findings from a swamping effect could result.

Conservation of bats declining from white-nose syndrome (WNS) impacts requires an understanding of both temporal and landscape-level habitat relationships. Traditionally, much of the research on bat ecology has focused on behavior of summer maternity colonies within species’ distribution cores, including that of the endangered northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis). To further our knowledge of this species, we evaluated multi-season activity patterns in eastern North Carolina and Virginia, including areas where populations were recently discovered. We used passive acoustic monitoring to assess relative and probable activity of northern long-eared bats from October 2016 to August 2021. Northern long-eared bat relative activity was greatest in areas containing greater proportions of woody wetlands and upland pine-dominated evergreen forests.

Understanding the relationships of biotic and abiotic factors to seasonal activity at hibernacula is important for the conservation of bats impacted by white-nose syndrome (WNS). Research on the relative and probable activity patterns of the federally endangered northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) primarily has focused on summer maternity colonies, whereas surveys at hibernacula have traditionally relied on external capture and internal counts. We used passive acoustic monitoring to assess the relative and probable activity of northern long-eared bats at 13 hibernacula in western Virginia, from August 2020 to May 2022. Northern long-eared bats were most active near hibernacula during warmer weeks of the fall swarm and spring emergence, when rainfall was low. Similarly, the probability of northern long-eared bat activity was highest near hibernacula during the spring/summer season.

Throughout much of the eastern U.S., many forested ecosystems have lost large amounts of core forest areas due to land-use change, isolating wildlife in forest fragments. The eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) is considered a species of conservation concern in Virginia, where populations are restricted to spatially disjunct forest patches in the central Appalachian Mountains. We caught and radio-tagged eastern spotted skunks in the Appalachian Mountains of Virginia to assess whether current habitat fragmentation restricts skunk movements and hence distribution, potentially leading to isolation among habitat patches. Denning home range size (approximately 3.7 km2) in our study was smaller than those in other studies of eastern spotted skunks and excursive movements were primarily limited to core forested areas (>2 km2). Core forested areas were used more than non-forested and forest-edge areas.

Southern fox squirrels (Sciurus niger niger) have been declining due to habitat fragmentation, cover type conversion, and fire suppression in the Southeast. A decrease in growing season burns has led to hardwood encroachment and forest mesophication that benefit the competing eastern gray squirrels (S. carolinensis). In the southern Coastal Plain and Piedmont of Virginia, these pattern raises the question of whether gray squirrels are competitively excluding southern fox squirrels in these altered landscapes. From October 2019 to October 2020, we conducted continual camera trapping for southern fox squirrels and gray squirrels on the Big Woods/Piney Grove Complex (BWPGC) and at Fort Barfoot (FB) in the Coastal Plain and lower Piedmont of Virginia, respectively. Both sites are among the few areas that still contain large, intact pine savanna and mixed-pine hardwood forests in southeastern Virginia.

Fisheries

Graham F. Montague, Richard A. Snow, Douglas L. Zentner, Austin D. Griffin

1    Comparing Precision of Otolith and Pectoral Spine Age Assessments for Black and Yellow Bullheads

Joseph V. Siegel, Stuart Welsh, Nate Taylor, Quinton Phelps

10   Size Structure, Age, Growth, and Mortality of Flathead Catfish in the Robert C. Byrd Pool of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers

Steven J. Rider, Travis R. Powell

17    Characteristics of Commercial Paddlefish Harvest from a Provisional Fishery in the Alabama River, Alabama

John Davidson, Clayton Raines, Curtis Crouse, Christopher Good, Brandon Keplinger

27    Evaluating Brook Trout Egg and Alevin Survival at Different Temperatures in Simulated Karst Environments with Marl Sedimentation

Despite the broad geographical range of bullhead catfishes (Ameiurus spp.), their population vital rates have rarely been studied. Estimation of vital rates requires accurate age estimates and otoliths generally are considered to be the most accurate and precise aging structure for most fish species. However, pectoral spines of some ictalurid species have been used to generate precise age estimates of younger fish. Although previous studies have compared age estimates between otoliths and spines for large-bodied, longer-lived catfishes, there have been few comparable studies for bullheads. Our objectives were to compare the reader precision and preparation times of lapilli otoliths and pectoral spines (articular process [AP] and basal recess [BR] sections) to determine which aging structure is most precise and efficient for age analysis of black bullhead (Ameiurus melas) and yellow bullhead (A. natalis).

Flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris) were sampled in the Robert C. Byrd Pool of the Ohio and Kanawha rivers, West Virginia, to inform management decisions based on population characteristics of size structure, age, growth, and mortality. Sampling was conducted with low-frequency boat electrofishing during late May to early June over a four-year period (2017–2020). We examined size structure using proportional size distribution indi- ces. Growth was evaluated using otolith-derived ages, a von Bertalanffy growth curve, and mean length at age data, including comparisons to published mean length at age data of other populations. Annual mortality was estimated with a weighted catch curve. We documented a high-density population (mean CPUE = 49 fish h–1) with low mortality (A = 11.8%), characterized by slow growing individuals with a maximum recorded age of 36.

Due to overharvest of paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) throughout Alabama, the Alabama Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries (ADWFF) approved a moratorium prohibiting the recreational and commercial catch, possession, and harvest of paddlefish beginning November 1988. However, due to increased demand for paddlefish eggs, a provisional fishery for commercial paddlefish harvest was approved beginning March 2013 in the Alabama River, Mobile River Basin, Alabama. As part of this provisional fishery, a new reporting form was required of all commercial paddlefish harvesters to record their daily harvest and effort. We summarized and quantified commercial paddlefish harvest and harvester data from these reports to examine spatial and temporal harvest patterns from 2013 to 2017 and compare to data collected by ADWFF biologists in 2016. A total of 4861 female paddlefish were harvested in all commercial years combined.

Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) have been extirpated from many karst-geology streams in West Virginia; however, the causes are not fully understood. Specifically, the impact of calcareous precipitate (marl), which is common in hard-water environments, has not been evaluated as an im- pediment to juvenile survival. Accordingly, two lab-based studies were conducted to determine if brook trout egg and alevin survival is inhibited by marl. In the first study, three aeration treatments were applied to water from a limestone spring source (13–14 C; ~300 mg L–1 hardness), resulting in different pH levels and an increasing degree of marl precipitate. Treatments included raw/untreated (RU; no marl), once-aerated (OA; limited marl), and continuously aerated (CA; significant marl) water. Brook trout eggs obtained from a local hatchery were fertilized and stocked among gravel-filled trays receiving each water type.

Understanding walleye (Sander vitreus) spawning behavior is important for managing walleye fisheries, but such information is limited for Appalachian reservoirs. We assessed spawning movements and spawning locations for a reestablished walleye population in Cheat Lake, West Virginia. We tagged fifty-two walleye with acoustic telemetry transmitters to evaluate environmental correlates associated with pre-spawn movements and to deter- mine spawning locations. Using an information-theoretic approach, we compared candidate logistic regression models to determine which environmental variables best explained upstream movements to spawning areas. The two models with the most support both included additive effects of year and water temperature, with sex also included in the second of these models. Water temperature had a significant positive relationship with pre-spawn movements in each model.

Catching a state record fish is a significant accomplishment in the life of any angler. The need to have a state agency biologist present to verify the record fish can delay the certification of the fish, possibly leading to changes in the fish’s weight. Few published studies have directly investigated the impact of preservation method on weight change of fish following capture. We examined four fish species: black crappie (Pomoxis nigromacula- tus), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris), and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) to identify the best preservation method for minimizing change in weight post-catch. We evaluated four preservation methods including holding fish alive, on ice, in an ice bath, and in a freezer for either 24 or 48 h.

Stream fishing for black bass (Micropterus spp.) is a popular outdoor recreational activity in northern Arkansas. After construction of a new access area on Crooked Creek, Arkansas in 2017, anglers expressed concerns about increased fishing pressure and possible overharvest of smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu). In 2019, we conducted a creel survey (60 sample days over six months) at five public accesses, including the new access, on a 35-km section of Crooked Creek. We also tagged 195 fish in an associated one-year exploitation study to address requests for stricter regulations and mandatory catch and release for smallmouth bass. Estimates of fishing pressure (20,521 h) and smallmouth bass catch rates (1.13 fish h–1) were both high. We saw high tag reporting rates (61%) during the first two months of the exploitation study.

Declining angler harvest rates of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) have increasingly led to small impoundments containing over-crowded largemouth bass populations. Various methods to correct or prevent crowded largemouth bass populations have been used by fisheries man- agers, with mixed results. We removed largemouth bass from two small impoundments in South Carolina using boat electrofishing over two consecu- tive years, with targets of removing 40–50% of the largemouth bass populations each year. We used relative weight (Wr) as the removal criterion, such that all largemouth bass displaying condition Wr < 95 were removed. Largemouth bass population sizes were estimated using mark-recapture in each impoundment for large (≥200 mm TL) and small (<200 mm TL) largemouth bass length groups.

Negative impacts from non-native congener introductions have emerged as an immediate threat to black bass conservation and management. Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) historically comprised the sole black bass fishery in Moss Lake, North Carolina. Alabama bass (Micropterus henshalli) were illegally introduced into Moss Lake and were first detected during a 2008 electrofishing survey conducted by North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission biologists. Since this detection, Alabama bass rapidly increased in abundance throughout the reservoir, while largemouth bass abundance declined concomitantly and reached a low equilibrium, except within cove habitat of the upper reservoir. Alabama bass CPUE was generally 2–3 times higher than largemouth bass CPUE during the study, but Alabama bass were overall smaller in size and in poorer condition than largemouth bass.

The largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) population in South Mill Creek Lake, a centrarchid-dominated, eutrophic small impoundment in West Virginia, was managed under a 305-mm minimum-length limit until 2007. Under this regulation the population was typified by consistently low proportional size distribution (PSD) values, low quality-length CPUE, excessive juvenile recruitment, and poor length structure. Therefore, in 2007 a protected slot limit (PSL) regulation (305–406 mm) was implemented to shift the size structure of the fishery. Spring (May) boat electrofishing surveys were conducted pre- and post-regulation (2003–2022) to evaluate fishery response under both regulatory regimes. The largemouth bass population of a similar system, Kimsey Run Lake, was sampled using the same methods over the same time periods.

Production of submersed aquatic vegetation (SAV) is promoted for waterfowl forage through hydrological management in brackish tidal impoundments along the south Atlantic coast, USA. This management also promotes production of aquatic invertebrates as food resources for many bird species. We conducted a field experiment to compare effects of traditional complete drawdown to fissure substrates versus a novel partial drawdown (i.e., mudflat to 10 cm depth) on aquatic invertebrate biomass in impounded and non-impounded tidal wetlands in the Ashepoo, Combahee, and Ed- isto Rivers (ACE) Basin, South Carolina. We sampled 20 randomly selected impoundments (complete drawdown, n = 8; partial drawdown, n = 12) and adjacent non-impounded tidal marsh across three properties in August 2016, November 2016, January 2017, and April 2017.

We analyzed a three-year consolidated sample of Louisiana hunters’ responses to the Louisiana Game Harvest Surveys (LAGHS) distributed via email and mail in May following the 2016–2017, 2017–2018, and 2018–2019 hunting seasons. To determine whether the distribution modes pro- duced different results, both modes asked identical questions about hunting effort, harvest, and age. We used generalized linear mixed models to test hypotheses about hunters’ days hunted, harvest, representation of age classes, and effect of age-weighting (i.e., weighting responses based on the differ- ence in proportion between individual age classes in the response sample and the original license population) across survey modes. We compared days spent hunting and species harvested across distribution modes. We received 42,346 qualified email responses with a qualified response rate of 19.3%, and 6387 qualified mail responses with a qualified response rate of 14.1%.

Since the spread of white-nose syndrome in North America, several bat species have shown precipitous declines in abundance and distribution. With lower netting detection probabilities for the currently threatened but proposed endangered northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) and endangered Indiana bats (Myotis sodalis), determination of presence or absence for regulatory clearance often has shifted to the use of acoustic sur- veys. However, acoustic surveys are unable to differentiate between non-reproductive individuals versus a maternity colony. We used recorded nightly echolocation pass counts of bat species-specific probabilities with maximum likelihood estimator (MLE) scores to determine thresholds by cover type and reproductive period whereby the potential for northern long-eared bat or Indiana bat maternity colonies occurs. Where nightly MLE P-values were

The gray bat (Myotis grisescens) is a cave-obligate species that has been listed as federally endangered since 1976, following population declines from human disturbance at hibernation and maternity caves. However, with cave protection, most gray bat populations have increased. As part of a project examining bat use of transportation structures as day-roosts, we continuously acoustically monitored 12 riparian sites within the Clinch River Watershed of southwest Virginia from March through November, 2018–2020. We used 15 different landscape and weather-related variables in gener- alized linear mixed models to determine factors influencing gray bat presence and activity. Seasonal activity patterns were similar among years, but the number of nightly gray bat calls increased with each passing year, consistent with positive population trends observed at winter hibernacula.

Species distribution models enable resource managers to avoid and mitigate impacts to, or enhance habitat of, target species at the landscape level. Persistent declines of northern long-eared bats (Myotis septentrionalis) due to white-nose syndrome have made acquisition of contemporary data difficult. Therefore, use of legacy data may be necessary for creation of species distribution models. We used historical roost and capture records, both individually and in combination, to assess the distribution and availability of northern long-eared bat habitat across the 670,000-ha Monongahela Na- tional Forest (MNF), West Virginia, USA. We created random forest presence/pseudo-absence models to examine influences of various biotic and abi- otic predictors on both roosting and foraging presence locations of northern long-eared bats. Predicted northern long-eared bat habitat was abundant (43.1% of the MNF) and widely dispersed.

Hierarchical conservation and management of Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) habitat may benefit from use of species distribution models. White-nose syndrome has caused additional declines for this endangered bat, requiring use of historical presence locations for habitat-related analy- ses. We created random forest presence/pseudo-absence models to assess the distribution and availability of Indiana bat habitat across the 670,000-ha Monongahela National Forest (MNF), West Virginia, USA. We collated historical roost and capture locations, both individually and in combination, to examine impacts of various biotic and abiotic predictors on roosting and foraging habitat of Indiana bats. Our final concordance map suggests that In- diana bat habitat was abundant (37.2% of the MNF) but localized, with predicted suitable areas often associated with edges of dry-calcareous forests.

Achieving a target population size is often the first goal of species restorations. From 2012 to 2014, the Virginia Department of Wildlife Resources released 75 elk (Cervus canadensis) originating from Kentucky into Buchanan County in southwestern Virginia. These individuals were ear tagged with unique numbers upon release with an additional 33 elk tagged within the Virginia Elk Management Zone (VEMZ) from 2019 through early 2022. To assess post-release population size, we conducted visual driving surveys throughout Buchanan County from January through mid-April, 2021 and January through March, 2022, counting elk and noting sex, age class, and tagged individuals when observed. We conducted four surveys an- nually, each consisting of pooled elk counts from eight driving routes, and calculated a Lincoln-Petersen population estimate with Chapman’s bias cor- rection for each survey, then averaged estimates for each year.