Journal of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

MQnetary fines have been routinely assessed wildlife law violators for almost 2 centuries in the United States. Due to the humanizing of statutory law, sanctions for wildlife law violations have progressed from mutilation and deportation to monetary fines and short-term confinement. Misdemeanor case material compiled in recent years suggests that sanctions may have some deterrent effectwhen the certainty ofimposition is reasonably high. It is suggested that most wildlife law transgressions be referred to as "violations" and not "crimes." The ability to make conceptually feasible and statistically valid statements about hypothesized relationships between violation rates, certainty of apprehension, and severity of sanctions will ultimately depend on each agency's willingness to develop a program of planned research.

Data gathered by Morse in 1968, 1972, and 1976 surveys of state enforcement divisions were subjected to correlation and multiple regression analysis. Correlation analysis resulted in 75 significant (PS 0.05) correlations between pairs of enforcement variables. Man-years offisheries and wildlife law enforcement was the most frequently occurring variable in the 75 bivariate correlations. Multiple regression analysis was used to gain insight into the relative strength of the relationships between proposed independent variables and a dependent variable (either arrests or arrests per 1,000 licenses) in 6 regression models. A Uniform Recording and Reporting System and an annual survey of law enforcement divisions would make law enforcement data more amenable to statistical analysis.

An 11-question wildlife law enforcement objectives questionnaire was mailed to all state enforcement divisions during January 1977. Five follow-up reminders mailed at approximately 2-wk. intervals resulted in the return ofquestionnaires from 45 divisions. Twenty-seven of 45 states reported having explicit, written objectives; 7 ofthe 18 states without objectives reported they did not anticipate formulating objectives. Fifteen of the 27 states reporting objectives also reported having 1 or more objectives with associated measurement criteria. Eight of the 15 states reporting 1 or more objectives with criteria listed 1 or more measurement criteria for each objective. Ofthe 157 objectives listed collectively by the 27 states, measurement criteria existed for 50 of the objectives. Twelve states reported they had ranked the importance of their objectives.

An ll-question wildlife law enforcement objectives questionnaire was mailed to all state enforcement divisions during January 1977. Five follow-up reminders mailed at approximately 2-wk. intervals resulted in the return ofquestionnaires from 45 divisions. Twenty-seven of 45 states reported having explicit, written objectives; 7 ofthe 18 states without objectives reported they did not anticipate formulating objectives. Fifteen of the 27 states reporting objectives also reported having 1 or more objectives with associated measurement criteria. Eight of the 15 states reporting 1 or more objectives with criteria listed 1 or more measurement criteria for each objective. Ofthe 157 objectives listed collectively by the 27 states, measurement criteria existed for 50 of the objectives. Twelve states reported they had ranked the importance of their objectives.

Review of the status of chemicals used in fisheries indicates that many lack proper registrations. Regulations of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Food and Drug Administration require that all existing registrations be reviewed and reregistered by October 1977. Adequate data to support reregistration are lacking for some of the most widely used chemicals. Applications of unregistered compounds are strictly prohibited under penalty oflaw. Cancellation of existing registrations. high costs of research, high manpower requirements, and the long time required to complete adequate research contribute to a situation in which fishery workers may be deprived ofneeded management tools. All phases of fishery management are directly affected. The loss of therapeutants, anesthetics, herbicides, and piscicides will be reflected in lower hatchery production, fish of poorer quality, --and increased costs. Survival of fish that are in poor health when stocked will be reduced.

Texas has 37 man-made reservoirs used to cool electro-power plants and several more are in the construction and/or planning phases. Managing the sport fishery in these reservoirs is difficult because temperate predators are unable to compete with overabundant rough fish populations characteristic in the warmed water of these impoundments. Nile perch (Lates sp.) and peacock bass (Cichla temensis) are two tropical predators under investigation for possible introduction into power plant reservoirs. Small stocks of these fishes are being maintained in closed-recirculation systems at the Heart of the Hills Fisheries Research Station, Ingram, Texas. Fishes will be reared to sexual maturity, spawned, and the young used in temperature and salinity tolerance tests. Information gained in these tests will playa significant role in the selection ofstudy reservoirs.

The feeding activity of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) significantly reduced the final biomass of submerged plants in Missouri ponds. Water quality was improved; total alkalinity and pH were sustained at levels more suitable for productivity. Nocturnal oxygen depletion was less severe. and noxious phytoplankton blooms did not develop in ponds stocked with grass carp. Grass carp had no significant effect on abundance of glass shrimp (Palaemonetes kadiakensis); bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) had a much greater negative effect. In six of eight ponds with grass carp the densities of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelasl were greater than in any control pond. Young bluegills were significantly more abundant in ponds with grass carp. Bluegill growth was negatively correlated with bluegill density, but not with grass carp biomass. Average total apparent fish production was 270% greater in ponds with grass carp than in control ponds.

Florida largemouth bass, Micropterus salrnoides floridanus (Le Sueur), northern largemouth bass, M.s. salrnoides (Lacepede), and their F1 hybrid were stocked in a 3. 64-hectare pond, and their growth rates and catchability compared. The hybrid and Florida bass were found to achieve the best growth over a 3-yr period, apparently due to genetic influences rather than environmental factors. Differences in catchability were not observed among the three strains oflargemouth bass.

The purpose of this study was to observe growth, survival, and spatial distribution of the Florida largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides floridanus) and of the northern subspecies (M. s. salmoides) in an Oklahoma reservoir thermally enriched by a heated effluent from an electrical generating plant. Hatchery-reared fingerlings of both subspecies were stocked in 1974 and 1975 after they were marked with either fluorescent pigments sprayed into the dennis, or, with magnetized metal injected into the nasal cartilage. Growth of the Florida subspecies was greater than that of the northern subspecies in both years of the study, but the difference was significant only in 1975. Overwinter survival of Florida bass was lower than that of northern bass in both years, and was especially low (1.6%) during the winter of 1974-75, when lake temperatures were lower than during the winter of 1975-76.

Scales and otoliths of the white grunt, Haemulon plumieri, sampled from the North Carolina and South Carolina headboat fishery were examined to determine if they could be used to age the species. Both structures were satisfactory, 76% of the fish examined could be aged by scales and approximately the same percentage by otoliths. Agreement for a given age between otoliths and scales taken from the same fish was 75%. The oldest fish collected was XIII; 589 mm total length. Growth occurred from about mid-March to November. Back-calculated mean lengths ranged from 97mm at end ofyear 1 to 550 at end of year 13. The Bertalanffy equation describing theoretical growth in length is: It = 640 (l e- O.1084 (r + 1.0(7»). Total mortality estimates, based on catch curves from over 5,000 fish, ranged from 37% to 51% varying between years and geographical area. The length-weight relationship is described by the equation W =O. 00001426L'0220; W =O. ooooI201U·0'"' for males, and W =O.

Standing crop of estuarine fisheries, as determined by extensive rotenone sampling, ranged from 17.6 to 1,605 kg/ha; overall average was 393.8. The most abundant species in numbers were gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus (54.6%); anchovies, Anchoa sp. (10.7%); and striped mullet, Mugil cephalus (6.6%). Of the 8,322 kg of fish collected during the study, red drum, Sciaenops ocellata, represented 32.2%, followed by menhaden (16%) and striped mullet (11.5%). First day rotenone samples were not sufficient for quantitating species abundance. Rotenone eollections indicated that trawls were highly selective (P<.01).

Control of population density in southern Illinois farm ponds was achieved by stocking F, hybrid sunfish of the male bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) X female green sunfish (L. cyanellus) and the male redear sunfish (L. microlophus) X female green sunfish with largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Four of 30 ponds sampled were contaminated by nondesirable species from the watershed. Little or no recruitment of the F, generation occurred in ponds containing largemouth bass. In those populations where the hybrids were supplementally fed and bass were present, the F, bluegillX green sunfish hybrid averaged 159 g at annulus 3, and 199 g at annulus 4. In nonfed populations with bass this hybrid averaged 148 g at annulus 4. The F, redear sunfish X green sunfish hybrid averaged 127g at annulus 4 in nonfed populations with bass.

Anhydrous ammonia was applied to ponds at average rates of 18-40 ppm to evaluate its use as a fish toxicant and aquatic herbicide. Ponds contained toxic levels ofammonia for 3-4 weeks after applications, depending on concentration, water temperature and other factors. A regression model was developed to estimate specific dissipation times. Application of15ppm ammonia effected a high percent mortality to all fish species observed. Complete fish kills occurred at approximately 30 ppm ammonia. Any concentration above 15 ppm temporarily controlled most vegetation, regardless of season. Benthic organisms were reduced but not eliminated by any treatment. Anhydrous ammonia was found to be relatively inexpensive compared to other fish toxicants and aquatic herbicides.

Five yearling northern pike (Esox lucius). muskellunge (Esox masquinongy), or their F, hybrid ("tiger muskie") were stocked in duplicate 0.2-ha ponds in April, 1974. Two additional ponds were stocked with a combination of five fish of each of the three forms. In 58 hours of angling from April to September, northern pike were 3.1 and 4.2 times more vulnerable than tiger muskies and muskellunge, respectively. No fish were caught in 18 hours of fishing from 15 June to 13 August. Repeat catches accounted for 35. 6% of the total catch; hooking mortality was negligible (1.7%).

The Reservoir Committee, Southern Division, American Fisheries Society, undertook to measure the influence of stocked predator fishes on existing fish populations and sport fishing in selected reservoirs through a coordinated interagency study. Field data collection consisted of (1) fish population biomass estimation, (2) limnological survey, and (3) sport fish harvest estimation, with data being collected in 1972 and 1973. Twenty-six reservoirs, totaling 368,000 acres, were included in the project. The work plan used to standardize field data collection is described. Six years were required to plan, execute. analyze, and publish the results.

Sixteen of the 26 predator stocking evaluation (PSE) reservoirs were stocked with striped bass during 1967-71 and harvest of them by anglers was recorded in 10 reservoirs in 1972 and/or 1973. Walleye were stocked in nine of the PSE reservoirs and were harvested in six of them during the study period. Probable reasons for stocking success or failure are discussed in the accompanying PSE papers.

Estimates of angling effort and sport fish harvest in 24 predator-stocking-evaluation reservoirs in 1972 and 1973 indicated mean annual angler-effort was 31.1 hours per acre and total harvest was 18.4 pounds per acre. Harvest-rate was 0.7 fish per hour or 0.6 pounds per hour. Average annual harvest of striped bass was 0.5 pounds per acre; walleye 0.3 pounds per acre. Striped bass harvest was positively related to dissolved solids content and water level fluctuation but negatively related to mean depth. Walleye harvest was positively related to mean depth and negatively to reservoir area. Establishment of significant fisheries for both striped bass and walleye in a single reservoir is improbable. No significant correlation was found between the harvests of stocked striped bass or walleye and the harvests of other sport fishes. Insofar as harvest data reflect production there is no evidence of competition between introduced and indigenous predators in the reservoirs sampled.

The cove rotenone sample technique was used to estimate standing crop of fishes in the 23 reservoirs selected for the Predator Stocking Evaluation (PSE). Estimates ofadjusted standing crops were derived by expanding the observed standing crop of fish in a cove sample by compensation factors for incomplete recovery of fish in the sample and for different shoreline-open water distributional patterns of various fish species and size groups. Results of 138 rotenone samples indicated that the mean adjusted standing crop of fishes in the PSE reservoirs was 451.1 pounds per acre, an increase of 79 percent over unadjusted crop. Adjusted crop estimates of major taxa in pounds per acre were: Esox sp., 0.8; white bass, 3.7; striped bass, 0.6; black bass. 30.2; crappie, 17.8; walleye, 0.4; gars, 2.5; bowfin, 3.3; catfish. 39.2; clupeids, 148.3; minnows and silversides. 3.1; white perch and yellow bass. 1.1; sunfishes. 82.2; darters, 1. 7; yellow perch.

Relations between environmental variables and fish standing crops were examined in 1972-73 as part of a Predator-Stocking-Evaluation of reservoirs, sponsored by the Reservoir Committee, Southern Division of the American Fisheries Society. High volumes of flow and increased water exchange rates in 1973 were associated with increases in fish standing crops and changes in the size structure of fish assemblages in some study reservoirs. Reservoirs with higher inherent water exchange rates also supported larger standing crops than those with lower exchange rates. However, highly variable responses of fish populations in different reservoirs to environmental change reflect the importance of other physicochemical and biological interactions not measured in this analysis. Combinations of environmental variables explained from 41 to 67% of the variation in selected standing crop components.

The method advanced for estimating prey-predator relations in reservoirs is based on fish standing crop data derived from samples collected in rotenone-treated coves in 23 reservoirs. The sampling, in August 1972 and 1973, was part of a cooperative study conducted under the auspices of the Reservoir Committee, Southern Division of the American Fisheries Society. Estimates were made of sizes ofprey species which predators with various mouth sizes could swallow; lengths ofall species ofpredators were then adjusted to equal the lengths of largemouth bass of equivalent predatory capability; and a computer program was develaped to calculate biomass of prey available to predators in length classes equivalent to 1-inch length classes of bass 1- to 28 inches long. Results indicated that 50% of the populations sampled were deficient in available prey. Stocking ofadditional predators in these instances would be deemed inadvisable.

Satisfactory procedures were developed for the artificial propagation of snook, Centropomus undecimalis, as were methods for capture, care, transport, and handling of the broodfish. Milt stored at 40' F. up to 12 hours was satisfactory for fertilization. Fecundity was determined to be approximately 45,000 eggs per pounds of body weight. Fertile eggs were bouyant at salinities greater than 2(1'/0<> Lack of agitation during the first 6 hours of incubation proved critical for consistent embryo development. Hatching occurred between 24 and 30 hours after fertilization at incubation temperatures between 82' and 87" F. Fry culture efforts were limited to intensive culture techniques in the laboratory.

Spotted seatrout were maintained in an indoor tank (6 x 3.3 x 1.5m). Temperature and light were adjusted to simulate the seasons. When the light regime equaled 15 hr light and 9 hr dark and the temperature was 26 C. the spotted seatrout began to spawn. They continued to spawn during each of 13 consecutive months for a total of 82 spawns. Eggs were collected from the filter box with glass beakers and placed in 74-liter aquaria. The eggs hatched after 18 hr. Newly hatched seatrout were fed rotifers (Brachionis plicatilisland brine shrimp (Artemia sp.). Descriptions and illustrations are provided of the tanks, aquaria, lighting equipment. collecting gear, and plumbing. Procedures and methods for collecting adults, for including them to spawn. for collecting the eggs, for rearing the larvae. and for growing food for the larvae are described in detail.